The structure of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) stems in relation to wood properties of sawn timber

An important challenge in forest industry is to get the appropriate raw material out from the forests to the wood processing industry. Growth and stem reconstruction simulators are therefore increasingly integrated in industrial conversion simulators, for linking the properties of wooden products to the three-dimensional structure of stems and their growing conditions. Static simulators predict the wood properties from stem dimensions at the end of a growth simulation period, whereas in dynamic approaches, the structural components, e.g. branches, are incremented along with the growth processes. The dynamic approach can be applied to stem reconstruction by predicting the three-dimensional stem structure from external tree variables (i.e. age, height) as a result of growth to the current state. In this study, a dynamic growth simulator, PipeQual, and a stem reconstruction simulator, RetroSTEM, are adapted to Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) to predict the three-dimensional structure of stems (tapers, branchiness, wood basic density) over time such that both simulators can be integrated in a sawing simulator. The parameterisation of the PipeQual and RetroSTEM simulators for Norway spruce relied on the theoretically based description of tree structure developing in the growth process and following certain conservative structural regularities while allowing for plasticity in the crown development. The crown expressed both regularity and plasticity in its development, as the vertical foliage density peaked regularly at about 5 m from the stem apex, varying below that with tree age and dominance position (Study I). Conservative stem structure was characterized in terms of (1) the pipe ratios between foliage mass and branch and stem cross-sectional areas at crown base, (2) the allometric relationship between foliage mass and crown length, (3) mean branch length relative to crown length and (4) form coefficients in branches and stem (Study II). The pipe ratio between branch and stem cross-sectional area at crown base, and mean branch length relative to the crown length may differ in trees before and after canopy closure, but the variation should be further analysed in stands of different ages and densities with varying site fertilities and climates. The predictions of the PipeQual and RetroSTEM simulators were evaluated by comparing the simulated values to measured ones (Study III, IV). Both simulators predicted stem taper and branch diameter at the individual tree level with a small bias. RetroSTEM predictions of wood density were accurate. For focusing on even more accurate predictions of stem diameters and branchiness along the stem, both simulators should be further improved by revising the following aspects in the simulators: the relationship between foliage and stem sapwood area in the upper stem, the error source in branch sizes, the crown base development and the height growth models in RetroSTEM. In Study V, the RetroSTEM simulator was integrated in the InnoSIM sawing simulator, and according to the pilot simulations, this turned out to be an efficient tool for readily producing stand scale information about stem sizes and structure when approximating the available assortments of wood products.

Oath of allegiance to George II by Jews in American colonies

Digital image

History of the reign of Philip the Second, King of Spain /

Contiene: Vol. 1 (1857. XXIII, 322 p.) -- Vol. 2 (1857. XI, 316 p.) -- Vol. 3 (1859. XII, 252, 24 p.)

The story of Nell Gwyn, and the sayings of Charles II.

Mode of access: Internet.

Mount Hope; or Philip, king of the Wampanoags: an historical romance,

First edition. Wright II, 1231.

Philip II. of Spain.

"First edition 1897. Reprinted 1899."

For love of a king.

Mode of access: Internet.

Attila, king of the Huns.

A "supplement containing above six hundred additional lines to Attila books VIII, XI, and XII" was appended to the author's Works, 1842, p. [555]-580.

Sögur Noregs konúnga frá Magnúsi Berfætta til Magnúss Erlíngssonar.

Edited by R. K. Rask.

Christiern II:s arkiv. I. Handlingar rörande Severin Norby och de under hans ledning stående krigsföretagen mot Sverige,

Mode of access: Internet.

The life of Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed The Great, King of Sweden /

Mode of access: Internet.

The history of the life of King Henry the Second, and of the age in which he lived,

vols. 1-4: 3d ed., 1769; v. 5: 2d ed., 1772; v. 6: 2d ed., 1773.

Year books of Edward II.

At head of title: Selden Society.

History of King Richard the Second of England.

Mode of access: Internet.