Cheaters in mutualism networks

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Invasive Africanized honeybees change the structure of native pollination networks in Brazil

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Analysis of a hyper-diverse seed dispersal network: modularity and underlying mechanisms

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Humidity levels drive reproductive modes and phylogenetic diversity of amphibians in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Biodiversity, Species Interactions and Ecological Networks in a Fragmented World

Biodiversity is organised into complex ecological networks of interacting species in local ecosystems, but our knowledge about the effects of habitat fragmentation on such systems remains limited. We consider the effects of this key driver of both local and global change on both mutualistic and antagonistic systems at different levels of biological organisation and spatiotemporal scales.There is a complex interplay of patterns and processes related to the variation and influence of spatial, temporal and biotic drivers in ecological networks. Species traits (e.g. body size, dispersal ability) play an important role in determining how networks respond to fragment size and isolation, edge shape and permeability, and the quality of the surrounding landscape matrix. Furthermore, the perception of spatial scale (e.g. environmental grain) and temporal effects (time lags, extinction debts) can differ markedly among species, network modules and trophic levels, highlighting the need to develop a more integrated perspective that considers not just nodes, but the structural role and strength of species interactions (e.g. as hubs, spatial couplers and determinants of connectance, nestedness and modularity) in response to habitat fragmentation.Many challenges remain for improving our understanding: the likely importance of specialisation, functional redundancy and trait matching has been largely overlooked. The potentially critical effects of apex consumers, abundant species and supergeneralists on network changes and evolutionary dynamics also need to be addressed in future research. Ultimately, spatial and ecological networks need to be combined to explore the effects of dispersal, colonisation, extinction and habitat fragmentation on network structure and coevolutionary dynamics. Finally, we need to embed network approaches more explicitly within applied ecology in general, because they offer great potential for improving on the current species-based or habitat-centric approaches to our management and conservation of biodiversity in the face of environmental change.

Sazonalidade e as redes de interações planta-polinizador

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Efeito do tamanho da área florestada, grau de isolamento e distância de estradas na estruturação de comunidades de aranhas em Alter do Chão, Santarém, Pará

Dados recentes mostram que os processos de destruição da floresta e formação de fragmentos estão avançando muito rapidamente na Amazônia brasileira. Definir como esses processos afetam a fauna nas diferentes fito fisionomias amazônicas é fundamental para que se possam planejar políticas visando avaliar a vulnerabilidade relativa de diferentes grupos biológicos a esse processo assim estimar o valor de áreas fragmentadas para a conservação. Os invertebrados podem ser usados como bons indicadores para esse objetivo, pois são grupos com grande capacidade adaptativa e de dispersão, dependendo diretamente do ambiente para sua sobrevivência. A utilização de aranhas para avaliar o efeito da fragmentação florestal é recente e ainda pouco explorada, apesar das aranhas serem um grupo megadiverso e com sua biologia diretamente relacionada com a composição e estrutura do ambiente em que vivem. Destarte este trabalho objetivou avaliar os efeitos do tamanho da área florestada, do grau de isolamento e da distância das estradas sobre as comunidades de aranhas em 15 ilhas de floresta, isoladas por matriz de savana e seis áreas de mata contínua no distrito de Alter do Chão, no município de Santarém, no oeste do estado do Pará. As amostragens envolveram um esforço de 252 horas, utilizando-se guarda-chuva entomológico e coleta manual noturna, ambas com controle de tempo e área, sendo a unidade amostral representada pela soma dos resultados obtidos por três coletores em cada área, em transectos de 250m. O protocolo resultou na captura de 7751 aranhas sendo 5477 imaturos e 2274 adultos. Após a identificação do material araneológico obteve-se uma lista com 306 espécies distribuídas em 32 famílias. Os padrões da comunidade de aranhas, analisados através de um MDS (Multidimensional Scaling ou escalonamento multidimensional) utilizando a distância de Bray-Curtis mostraram separação entre as áreas de mata contínua e ilhas de floresta. A análise da resposta à primeira dimensão da ordenação foi feita para as espécies com mais de 10 indivíduos na amostra e uma ordenação direta foi feita com as características das áreas (distância das ilhas de floresta para a floresta contínua, o tamanho e o índice de forma das ilhas de floresta). Uma análise GLM, utilizada para avaliar os efeitos da degradação ambiental, indicou diferenças significativas para o número de árvores por área florestada e para a distância das estradas: a fragmentação florestal sobre a comunidade de aranhas foi significativa apenas para o tamanho das ilhas em relação ao eixo 1 do MDS. A análise de variância (anova), que foi utilizada para se achar as médias das riquezas que foram maiores nas matas contínuas, diferindo do resultado das curvas de rarefação, que apontaram uma riqueza levemente maior nas ilhas de florest. O padrão de hierarquia da comunidade de aranhas foi achado no programa Nestedness Temperature Calculator Program - Nestcalc (Atmar; Patterson, 1995).

Interação mutualística entre aves frugívoras de sub-bosque e plantas no Parque Ecológico de Gunma, Santa Bárbara do Pará

O consumo de frutos por aves pode representar uma relação mutualística, na qual estas o utilizam como fonte de nutrientes, deixando as sementes intactas. Tais interações podem ser descritas por redes, as quais podem ocorrem ao acaso ou assumem um padrão. O presente estudo objetivou determinar a estruturação da rede na floresta primária e secundária, assim como o nível de aninhamento das interações da assembléia de aves de sub-bosque e espécies de vegetais do Parque Ecológico de Gunma, situado na região Amazônica. Foram realizadas captura de aves com redes ornitológicas para identificação da espécie, coleta e análise das fezes, no período de março a dezembro de 2007. Os dados foram empregados para determinação da conectância, do aninhamento do sistema mutualístico, do índice de importância das espécies e para elaboração da rede de interação. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o grau de aninhamento na floresta secundária foi maior que na primária e, a rede de interação final do Parque Ecológico de Gunma foi composta por 37 espécies (animais e plantas) interagindo com conectância de 18% e grau de aninhamento de 95%. As aves potencialmente dispersoras de sementes foram representadas por 20 espécies, destacando-se as famílias Pipridae, Tyrannidae, Turdidae e Thraupidae. Dixiphia pipra foi a principal dispersora nas duas fisionomias estudadas, seguido de Lipaugus vociferans na floresta primária e Cyanerpes caerulens na floresta secundária. Dentre os vegetais, 17 espécies fizeram parte da dieta das aves, e Miconia ciliata apresentou o maior índice de importância, pois interagiu com 16 espécies de aves, seguida de Phthirusa micrantha, na floresta primária, e Euterpe oleracea na floresta secundária.

Frugivores at higher risk of extinction are the key elements of a mutualistic network

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Influência da escala espacial na diversidade beta de anuros considerando diferentes ecoregiões da Mata Atlântica

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Abiotic factors shape temporal variation in the structure of an ant-plant network

Despite recognition of key biotic processes in shaping the structure of biological communities, few empirical studies have explored the influences of abiotic factors on the structural properties of mutualistic networks. We tested whether temperature and precipitation contribute to temporal variation in the nestedness of mutualistic ant-plant networks. While maintaining their nested structure, nestedness increased with mean monthly precipitation and, particularly, with monthly temperature. Moreover, some species changed their role in network structure, shifting from peripheral to core species within the nested network. We could summarize that abiotic factors affect plant species in the vegetation (e.g., phenology), meaning presence/absence of food sources, consequently an increase/decrease of associations with ants, and finally, these variations to fluctuations in nestedness. While biotic factors are certainly important, greater attention needs to be given to abiotic factors as underlying determinants of the structures of ecological networks.

Structure and mechanism of diet specialisation: testing models of individual variation in resource use with sea otters

Studies of consumer-resource interactions suggest that individual diet specialisation is empirically widespread and theoretically important to the organisation and dynamics of populations and communities. We used weighted networks to analyze the resource use by sea otters, testing three alternative models for how individual diet specialisation may arise. As expected, individual specialisation was absent when otter density was low, but increased at high-otter density. A high-density emergence of nested resource-use networks was consistent with the model assuming individuals share preference ranks. However, a density-dependent emergence of a non-nested modular network for core resources was more consistent with the competitive refuge model. Individuals from different diet modules showed predictable variation in rank-order prey preferences and handling times of core resources, further supporting the competitive refuge model. Our findings support a hierarchical organisation of diet specialisation and suggest individual use of core and marginal resources may be driven by different selective pressures.

Mistletoes Play Different Roles in a Modular Host-Parasite Network

Antagonistic interactions between host plants and mistletoes often form complex networks of interacting species. Adequate characterization of network organization requires a combination of qualitative and quantitative data. Therefore, we assessed the distribution of interactions between mistletoes and hosts in the Brazilian Pantanal and characterized the network structure in relation to nestedness and modularity. Interactions were highly asymmetric, with mistletoes presenting low host specificity (i.e., weak dependence) and with hosts being highly susceptible to mistletoe-specific infections. We found a non-nested and modular pattern of interactions, wherein each mistletoe species interacted with a particular set of host species. Psittacanthus spp. infected more species and individuals and also caused a high number of infections per individual, whereas the other mistletoes showed a more specialized pattern of infection. For this reason, Psittacanthus spp. were regarded as module hubs while the other mistletoe species showed a peripheral role. We hypothesize that this pattern is primarily the result of different seed dispersal systems. Although all mistletoe species in our study are bird dispersed, the frugivorous assemblage of Psittacanthus spp. is composed of a larger suite of birds, whereas Phoradendron are mainly dispersed by Euphonia species. The larger assemblage of bird species dispersing Psittacanthus seeds may also increase the number of hosts colonized and, consequently, its dominance in the study area. Nevertheless, other restrictions on the interactions among species, such as the differential capacity of mistletoe infections, defense strategies of hosts and habitat types, can also generate or enhance the observed pattern.

Unraveling the drivers of community dissimilarity and species extinction in fragmented landscapes

Communities in fragmented landscapes are often assumed to be structured by species extinction due to habitat loss, which has led to extensive use of the species-area relationship (SAR) in fragmentation studies. However, the use of the SAR presupposes that habitat loss leads species to extinction but does not allow for extinction to be offset by colonization of disturbed-habitat specialists. Moreover, the use of SAR assumes that species richness is a good proxy of community changes in fragmented landscapes. Here, we assessed how communities dwelling in fragmented landscapes are influenced by habitat loss at multiple scales; then we estimated the ability of models ruled by SAR and by species turnover in successfully predicting changes in community composition, and asked whether species richness is indeed an informative community metric. To address these issues, we used a data set consisting of 140 bird species sampled in 65 patches, from six landscapes with different proportions of forest cover in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. We compared empirical patterns against simulations of over 8 million communities structured by different magnitudes of the power-law SAR and with species-specific rules to assign species to sites. Empirical results showed that, while bird community composition was strongly influenced by habitat loss at the patch and landscape scale, species richness remained largely unaffected. Modeling results revealed that the compositional changes observed in the Atlantic Forest bird metacommunity were only matched by models with either unrealistic magnitudes of the SAR or by models ruled by species turnover, akin to what would be observed along natural gradients. We show that, in the presence of such compositional turnover, species richness is poorly correlated with species extinction, and z values of the SAR strongly underestimate the effects of habitat loss. We suggest that the observed compositional changes are driven by each species reaching its individual extinction threshold: either a threshold of forest cover for species that disappear with habitat loss, or of matrix cover for species that benefit from habitat loss.

Distribution patterns of a marsh vegetation metacommunity in relation to habitat configuration

The identification of the factors behind the distribution of plant communities in patched habitats may prove useful towards better understanding how ecosystems function. Plant assemblages are especially important for wetland productivity and provide food and habitat to animals. The present study analyses the distribution of a metacommunity of helophytes and phreatophytes in a wetland complex in oder to identify the effects of habitat configuration on the colonisation process. Ponds with wide vegetated shores and a short distance to a big (> 10 ha) wetland, had higher species richness. The average percentage of surface covered by each species in all the wetlands correlated positively with the number of patches occupied by that species. Moreover, the community presented a nested pattern (species-poor patches were subsets of species-rich patches), and this pattern came about by selective extinction and colonisation processes. We also detected the presence of some idiosyncratic species that did not follow nestedness. Conservation managers should attempt to maximise the vegetated shore width and to reduce the degree of isolation to enhance species richness. Furthermore, a single large and poorly isolated reserve may have the highest level of biodiversity in emergent vegetation species in this wetland complex, however, the particular ecological requirements of idiosyncratic species should also be taken into account when managing this type of community.