The effects of peer teaching of infant massage on general elf-efficacy and mother infant attachment among mothers in a residential rehabilitation facility for drug addiction and substance abuse

Approximately 200 million people, 5% aged 15-64 worldwide are illicit drug or substance abusers (World Drug Report, 2006). Between 2002 and 2005, an average of 8.2% of 12 year olds and older in the Miami, Fort Lauderdale metropolitan areas used illicit drugs (SAMHSA, 2007). Eight percent of pregnant women, aged 15 to 25, were more likely to have used illicit drugs during pregnancy than pregnant women aged 26 to 44. Alcohol use was 9.8% and cigarette use was 18% for pregnant women aged 15 to 44 (SAMHSA, 2005). Approximately a quarter of annual birth defects are attributed to the exposure of drugs or substance abuse in utero (General Accounting Office, 1991). Physical, psychological and emotional challenges may be present for the illicit drug/substance abuse (ID/SA) mother and infant placing them at a disadvantage early in their relationship (Shonkoff & Marshall, 1990). Mothers with low self efficacy have insecurely attached infants (Donovan, Leavitt, & Walsh, 1987). As the ID/SA mother struggles with wanting to be a good parent, education is needed to help her care for her infant. In this experimental study residential rehabilitating ID/SA mothers peer taught infant massage. Massage builds bonding/attachment between mother and infant (Reese & Storm, 2008) and peer teaching is effective because participants have faced similar challenges and speak the same language (Boud, Cohen, & Sampson 2001). Quantitative data were collected using the General Self-Efficacy and Maternal Attachment Inventory-Revised Scale before and after the 4-week intervention program. A reported result of this study was that empowering ID/SA mothers increased their self-efficacy, which in turn allowed the mothers to tackle challenges encountered and created feelings of being a fit mother to their infants. This research contributes to the existing database promoting evidence-based practice in drug rehabilitation centers. Healthcare personnel, such as nurse educators and maternal-child health practitioners, can develop programs in drug rehabilitation centers that cultivate an environment where the ID/SA rehabilitating mothers can peer teach each other, while creating a support system. Using infant massage as a therapeutic tool can develop a healthy infant and nurture a more positive relationship between mother and infant.

Two -way direction of influence in mother-infant interaction as denoted by concurrent reciprocal learning processes

This series of 5 single-subject studies used the operant conditioning paradigm to investigate, within the two-way influence process, how (a) contingent infant attention can reinforce maternal verbal behaviors during a period of mother-infant interaction and under subsequent experimental manipulation. Differential reinforcement was used to determine if it is possible that an infant attending to the mother (denoted by head-turns towards the image of the mother plus eye contact) increases (reinforces) the mother's verbal response (to a cue from the infant) upon which the infant behavior is contingent. There was also (b) an evaluation during the contrived parent-infant interaction for concurrent operant learning of infant vocal behavior via contingent verbal responding (reinforcement) implemented by the mother. Further, it was noted (c) whether or not the mother reported being aware that her responses were influenced by the infant's behavior. Findings showed: the operant conditioning of the maternal verbal behaviors were reinforced by contingent infant attention; and the operant conditioning of infant vocalizations was reinforced by contingent maternal verbal behaviors. No parent reported (1) being aware of the increase in their verbal response reinforced during operant conditioning of parental behavior nor a decrease in those responses during the DRA reversal phase, or (2) noticing a contingency between infant's and mother's response. By binomial 1-tail tests, the verbal-behavior patterns of the 5 mothers were conditioned by infant reinforcement (p < 0.02) and, concurrently, the vocal-response patterns of the 5 infants were conditioned by maternal reinforcement (p < 0.02). A program of systematic empirical research on the determinants of concurrent conditioning within mother-child interaction may provide a way to evaluate the differential effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving parent-child interactions. The work conducted in the present study is one step in this direction. ^

The Effects of Peer Teaching of Infant Massage on General Self-Efficacy and Mother Infant Attachment Among Mothers in a Residential Rehabilitation Facility for Drug Addiction and Substance Abuse

Approximately 200 million people, 5% aged 15-64 worldwide are illicit drug or substance abusers (World Drug Report, 2006). Between 2002 and 2005, an average of 8.2% of 12 year olds and older in the Miami, Fort Lauderdale metropolitan areas used illicit drugs (SAMHSA, 2007). Eight percent of pregnant women, aged 15 to 25, were more likely to have used illicit drugs during pregnancy than pregnant women aged 26 to 44. Alcohol use was 9.8% and cigarette use was 18% for pregnant women aged 15 to 44 (SAMHSA, 2005). Approximately a quarter of annual birth defects are attributed to the exposure of drugs or substance abuse in utero (General Accounting Office, 1991). Physical, psychological and emotional challenges may be present for the illicit drug/substance abuse (ID/SA) mother and infant placing them at a disadvantage early in their relationship (Shonkoff & Marshall, 1990). Mothers with low self efficacy have insecurely attached infants (Donovan, Leavitt, & Walsh, 1987). As the ID/SA mother struggles with wanting to be a good parent, education is needed to help her care for her infant. In this experimental study residential rehabilitating ID/SA mothers peer taught infant massage. Massage builds bonding/attachment between mother and infant (Reese & Storm, 2008) and peer teaching is effective because participants have faced similar challenges and speak the same language (Boud, Cohen, & Sampson 2001). Quantitative data were collected using the General Self-Efficacy and Maternal Attachment Inventory-Revised Scale before and after the 4-week intervention program. A reported result of this study was that empowering ID/SA mothers increased their self-efficacy, which in turn allowed the mothers to tackle challenges encountered and created feelings of being a fit mother to their infants. This research contributes to the existing database promoting evidence-based practice in drug rehabilitation centers. Healthcare personnel, such as nurse educators and maternal-child health practitioners, can develop programs in drug rehabilitation centers that cultivate an environment where the ID/SA rehabilitating mothers can peer teach each other, while creating a support system. Using infant massage as a therapeutic tool can develop a healthy infant and nurture a more positive relationship between mother and infant.

Mother-Infant Reciprocity and the Development of Joint Attention in 12 Month Old Infants

Social contingency is the ability to connect social stimuli, such as those behaviors performed by oneself and those performed by others. Detecting social contingencies occurs by means of reciprocity through shared experiences with others. Reciprocity denotes a circumstance in which two individuals participate in a collaborative exchange, and is distinguished from an event in which two individuals engage in separate, unrelated activities. Specifically, reciprocity incorporates joint attention (JA), which occurs when two individuals simultaneously and visually attend to the same item. JA is facilitated by gazing and pointing, whereby one individual initiates the action and the second individual follows suit by, for example, gaze-following. However, little is known about the role the mother may play in the development of JA. The purpose of our study was to investigate social contingency between mothers and infants engaging in dyadic interactions. Thirty-three 12-month-old typically developing infants (M = 12.2, SD = .19; N = 19 males) were filmed for 10 minutes during free play with their mothers and toys provided by an experimenter. Reciprocity was measured by coding mother-infant interactions when a precise chain of events occurred: (1) mother initiated a bid by introducing a toy/activity or request to the infant, (2) infant accepted the bid/request by engaging in play with the given toy/activity, and (3) mother persisted by continuing to engage in play with said toy/activity. We computed a Pearson Correlation to assess the relation between the mothers’ initiations of JA and their infants’ responses to JA. We found a moderately positive correlation between the two variables (r= 0.37, p<.05). Our findings suggest that reciprocity, an important component of social relationships, during parent-infant dyads may serve as a scaffold for joint attention abilities, which have been linked to social and language development.

Transmission of social anxiety from mother to infant: an experimental study using a social referencing paradigm

In this experiment we investigated the impact of indirect expressions of maternal social anxiety on infant interactions with a stranger. A social referencing paradigm was used in which infants first observed their mothers interacting with a stranger and then interacted with the stranger themselves. Mothers made no direct communicative gestures to the infant concerning the stranger throughout the procedure. There were two experimental conditions experienced by all mother-infant pairs (N = 24; 12 boys)-non-anxious and socially anxious-and there were two male strangers. Infants were between 12 and 14 months (M = 12.8, SD =.76). Order of condition and stranger presentation were counterbalanced. Before testing, mothers, none of whom were significantly socially anxious, were trained to behave in a non-anxious and a socially anxious manner on the basis of clinical and empirical descriptions of social phobia. The results showed that, compared to their responses following their mothers interacting normally with a stranger, following a socially anxious mother-stranger interaction, infants were significantly more fearful and avoidant with the stranger. Infant-stranger avoidance was further modified by infant temperament; high fear infants were more avoidant in the socially anxious condition than low-fear infants. We discuss these findings in light of the possible mechanisms underpinning infant affective and behavioral responsiveness. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Association between infant feeding patterns and diarrhoeal and respiratory illness: a cohort study in Chittagong, Bangladesh

Background In developing countries, infectious diseases such as diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections are the main cause of mortality and morbidity in infants aged less than one year. The importance of exclusive breastfeeding in the prevention of infectious diseases during infancy is well known. Although breastfeeding is almost universal in Bangladesh, the rates of exclusive breastfeeding remain low. This cohort study was designed to compare the prevalence of diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection (ARI) in infants according to their breastfeeding status in a prospective cohort of infants from birth to six months of age. Methods A total of 351 pregnant women were recruited in the Anowara subdistrict of Chittagong. Breastfeeding practices and the 7-day prevalence of diarrhoea and ARI were recorded at monthly home visits. Prevalences were compared using chi-squared tests and logistic regression. Results A total of 272 mother-infant pairs completed the study to six months. Infants who were exclusively breastfed for six months had a significantly lower 7-day prevalence of diarrhoea [AOR for lack of EBF = 2.50 (95%CI 1.10, 5.69), p = 0.03] and a significantly lower 7-day prevalence of ARI [AOR for lack of EBF = 2.31 (95%CI 1.33, 4.00), p < 0.01] than infants who were not exclusively breastfed. However, when the association between patterns of infant feeding (exclusive, predominant and partial breastfeeding) and illness was investigated in more detail, there was no significant difference in the prevalence of diarrhoea between exclusively [6.6% (95% CI 2.8, 10.4)] and predominantly breastfed infants [3.7% (95% CI 0.09, 18.3), (p = 0.56)]. Partially breastfed infants had a higher prevalence of diarrhoea than the others [19.2% (95% CI 10.4, 27.9), (p = 0.01)]. Similarly, although there was a large difference in prevalence in acute respiratory illness between exclusively [54.2% (95%CI 46.6, 61.8)] and predominantly breastfed infants [70.4% (95%CI 53.2, 87.6)] there was no significant difference in the prevalence (p = 0.17). Conclusion The findings suggest that exclusive or predominant breastfeeding can reduce rates of morbidity significantly in this region of rural Bangladesh.

Breastfeeding self-efficacy and alternative techniques to overcome maternal or infant breastfeeding challenges : a retrospective descriptive study

Background: Breastfeeding is the internationally accepted ideal in infant feeding. Ensuring mothers and babies receive optimal benefits, in both the short and long term, is dependent upon the successful establishment of breastfeeding in the first week. Many maternal and infant challenges can occur during the establishment of breastfeeding (Lactogenesis II). There are also many methods and devices (alternative techniques) which can be used to help, but the majority do not have an evidence-base. The mother.s self-confidence (self-efficacy) can be challenged by these unexpected circumstances, but understanding of the relationship is unclear. Method: This descriptive study used mail survey (including the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale . Short Form) to obtain the mother.s reports of their self-efficacy and their breastfeeding experience during the first week following birth, as well as actual use of alternative techniques. This study included all mothers of full term healthy singleton infants from one private hospital in Brisbane who began any breastfeeding. The data collection took place from November 2008 to February 2009. Ethical approval was granted from the research site and QUT Human Research Ethics Committee. Results: A total of 128 questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 56.9%. The sample was dissimilar to the Queensland population with regard to age, income, and education level, all of which were higher in this study. The sample was similar to the Queensland population in terms of parity and marital status. The rate of use of alternative techniques was 48.3%. The mean breastfeeding self-efficacy score of those who used any alternative technique was 43.43 (SD=12.19), and for those who did not, it was 58.32 (SD=7.40). Kruskal-Wallis analysis identified that the median self efficacy score for those who used alternative techniques was significantly lower than median self efficacy scores for those who did not use alternative techniques. The reasons women used alternative techniques varied widely, and their knowledge of alternative techniques was good. Conclusion: This study is the first to document breastfeeding self-efficacy of women who used alternative techniques to support their breastfeeding goals in the first week postpartum. An individualised clinical intervention to develop women.s self-efficacy with breastfeeding is important to assist mother/infant dyads encountering challenges to breastfeeding in the first week postpartum.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the baby eating behaviour questionnaire and associations with infant weight, gender and feeding mode in an Australian sample

The aim of this study was to evaluate the factor structure of the Baby Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (BEBQ) in an Australian community sample of mother-infant dyads. A secondary aim was to explore the relationship between the BEBQ subscales and infant gender, weight and current feeding mode. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) utilising structural equation modelling examined the hypothesised 4-factor model of the BEBQ. Only mothers (N=467) who completed all items on the BEBQ (infant age: M=17 weeks, SD=3 weeks) were included in the analysis. The original 4-factor model did not provide an acceptable fit to the data due to poor performance of the Satiety responsiveness factor. Removal of this factor (3 items) resulted in a well-fitting 3-factor model. Cronbach’s α was acceptable for the Enjoyment of food (α=0.73), Food responsiveness (α=0.78) and Slowness in eating (α=0.68) subscales but low for the Satiety responsiveness (α=0.56) subscale. Enjoyment of food was associated with higher infant weight whereas Slowness in eating and Satiety responsiveness were both associated with lower infant weight. Differences on all four subscales as a function of feeding mode were observed. This study is the first to use CFA to evaluate the hypothesised factor structure of the BEBQ. Findings support further development work on the Satiety responsiveness subscale in particular, but confirm the utility of the Enjoyment of food, Food responsiveness and Slowness in eating subscales.

Postnatal depressive symptoms amongst women in Central Vietnam: A cross-sectional study investigating prevalence and associations with social, cultural and infant factors

Background This study investigated the prevalence and socio-cultural correlates of postnatal mood disturbance amongst women 18–45 years old in Central Vietnam. Son preference and traditional confinement practices were explored as well as factors such as poverty, parity, family and intimate partner relationships and infant health. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in twelve randomly selected Commune Health Centres from urban and rural districts of Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam. Mother-infant dyads one to six months postpartum were invited to participate. Questionnaires from 431 mothers (urban n = 216; rural n = 215) assessed demographic and family characteristics, traditional confinement practices, son preference, infant health and social capital. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and WHO5 Wellbeing Index indicated depressive symptoms and emotional wellbeing. Data were analysed using general linear models. Results Using an EPDS cut-off of 12/13, 18.1 % (n = 78, 95 % CI 14.6 - 22.1) of women had depressive symptoms (20.4 % urban; 15.8 % rural). Contrary to predictions, infant gender and traditional confinement were unrelated to depressive symptoms. Poverty, food insecurity, being frightened of family members, and intimate partner violence increased both depressive symptoms and lowered wellbeing. The first model accounted for 30.2 % of the variance in EPDS score and found being frightened of one’s husband, husband’s unemployment, breastfeeding difficulties, infant diarrhoea, and cognitive social capital were associated with higher EPDS scores. The second model had accounted for 22 % of the variance in WHO5 score. Living in Hue city, low education, poor maternal competence and a negative family response to the baby lowered maternal wellbeing. Conclusions Traditional confinement practices and son preference were not linked to depressive symptoms among mothers, but were correlates of family relationships and wellbeing. Poverty, food insecurity, violence, infant ill health, and discordant intimate and family relationships were linked with depressive symptoms in Central Vietnam.

Northern Ireland Infant Death Thematic Review 2015

Co-Sleeping and bed sharing are considered the social norm for approximately 90% of the world's population, with two-thirds of the world's cultures habitually practicing mother-infant co-sleeping on the same bed. Although international studies show that the practice of co-sleeping is common, it is controversial in the public health community, as many consider it a significant risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), accounting for 50% of SIDS deaths in the UK. The report offers an international review of the evidence and provides important debates and critical knowledge for both health professionals, parents and all those organisations working to support the safety of infants in their first perinatal year.

Determinants of mother-baby relationship evaluated during pregnancy

ABSTRACT Background Mental health promotion is supported by a strong body of knowledge and is a matter of public health with the potential of a large impact on society. Mental health promotion programs should be implemented as soon as possible in life, preferably starting during pregnancy. Programs should focus on malleable determinants, introducing strategies to reduce risk factors or their impact on mother and child, and also on strengthening protective factors to increase resilience. The ambition of early detecting risk situations requires the development and use of tools to assess risk, and the creation of a responsive network of services based in primary health care, especially maternal consultation during pregnancy and the first months of the born child. The number of risk factors and the way they interact and are buffered by protective factors are relevant for the final impact. Maternal-fetal attachment (MFA) is not yet a totally understood and well operationalized concept. Methodological problems limit the comparison of data as many studies used small size samples, had an exploratory character or used different selection criteria and different measures. There is still a lack of studies in high risk populations evaluating the consequences of a weak MFA. Instead, the available studies are not very conclusive, but suggest that social support, anxiety and depression, self-esteem and self-control and sense of coherence are correlated with MFA. MFA is also correlated with health practices during pregnancy, that influence pregnancy and baby outcomes. MFA seems a relevant concept for the future mother baby interaction, but more studies are needed to clarify the concept and its operationalization. Attachment is a strong scientific concept with multiple implications for future child development, personality and relationship with others. Secure attachment is considered an essential basis of good mental health, and promoting mother-baby interaction offers an excellent opportunity to intervention programmes targeted at enhancing mental health and well-being. Understanding the process of attachment and intervening to improve attachment requires a comprehension of more proximal factors, but also a broader approach that assesses the impact of more distal social conditions on attachment and how this social impact is mediated by family functioning and mother-baby interaction. Finally, it is essential to understand how this knowledge could be translated in effective mental health promoting interventions and measures that could reach large populations of pregnant mothers and families. Strengthening emotional availability (EA) seems to be a relevant approach to improve the mother-baby relationship. In this review we have offered evidence suggesting a range of determinants of mother-infant relationship, including age, marital relationship, social disadvantages, migration, parental psychiatric disorders and the situations of abuse or neglect. Based on this theoretical background we constructed a theoretical model that included proximal and distal factors, risk and protective factors, including variables related to the mother, the father, their social support and mother baby interaction from early pregnancy until six months after birth. We selected the Antenatal Psychosocial Health Assessment (ALPHA) for use as an instrument to detect psychosocial risk during pregnancy. Method Ninety two pregnant women were recruited from the Maternal Health Consultation in Primary Health Care (PHC) at Amadora. They had three moments of assessment: at T1 (until 12 weeks of pregnancy) they filed out a questionnaire that included socio-demographic data, ALPHA, Edinburgh post-natal Depression Scale (EDPS), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and Sense of Coherence (SOC); at T2 (after the 20th weeks of pregnancy) they answered EDPS, SOC and MFA Scale (MFAS), and finally at T3 (6 months after birth), they repeated EDPS and SOC, and their interaction with their babies was videotaped and later evaluated using EA Scales. A statistical analysis has been done using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, univariate logistic regression and multiple linear regression. Results The study has increased our knowledge on this particular population living in a multicultural, suburb community. It allow us to identify specific groups with a higher level of psychosocial risk, such as single or divorced women, young couples, mothers with a low level of education and those who are depressed or have a low SOC. The hypothesis that psychosocial risk is directly correlated with MFAS and that MFA is directly correlated with EA was not confirmed, neither the correlation between prenatal psychosocial risk and mother-baby EA. The study identified depression as a relevant risk factor in pregnancy and its higher prevalence in single or divorced women, immigrants and in those who have a higher global psychosocial risk. Depressed women have a poor MFA, and a lower structuring capacity and a higher hostility to their babies. In average, depression seems to reduce among pregnant women in the second part of their pregnancy. The children of immigrant mothers show a lower level of responsiveness to their mothers what could be transmitted through depression, as immigrant mothers have a higher risk of depression in the beginning of pregnancy and six months after birth. Young mothers have a low MFA and are more intrusive. Women who have a higher level of education are more sensitive and their babies showed to be more responsive. Women who are or have been submitted to abuse were found to have a higher level of MFA but their babies are less responsive to them. The study highlights the relevance of SOC as a potential protective factor while it is strongly and negatively related with a wide range of risk factors and mental health outcomes especially depression before, during and after pregnancy. Conclusions ALPHA proved to be a valid, feasible and reliable instrument to Primary Health Care (PHC) that can be used as a total sum score. We could not prove the association between psychosocial risk factors and MFA, neither between MFA and EA, or between psychosocial risk and EA. Depression and SOC seems to have a clear and opposite relevance on this process. Pregnancy can be considered as a maturational process and an opportunity to change, where adaptation processes occur, buffering risk, decreasing depression and increasing SOC. Further research is necessary to better understand interactions between variables and also to clarify a better operationalization of MFA. We recommend the use of ALPHA, SOC and EDPS in early pregnancy as a way of identifying more vulnerable women that will require additional interventions and support in order to decrease risk. At political level we recommend the reinforcement of Immigrant integration and the increment of education in women. We recommend more focus in health care and public health in mental health condition and psychosocial risk of specific groups at high risk. In PHC special attention should be paid to pregnant women who are single or divorced, very young, low educated and to immigrant mothers. This study provides the basis for an intervention programme for this population, that aims to reduce broad spectrum risk factors and to promote Mental Health in women who become pregnant. Health and mental health policies should facilitate the implementation of the suggested measures.

Comportements parentaux et autorégulation chez l’enfant : une perspective développementale

Étant donné que le sommeil ainsi que les problèmes intériorisés et extériorisés durant l’enfance sont associés à plusieurs aspects du développement social, affectif et cognitif de l’enfant, il apparait essentiel d’étudier ces deux indicateurs de l’autorégulation chez les enfants ainsi que de comprendre les facteurs qui contribuent à leur émergence. L’objectif général de la thèse était donc de mieux comprendre les facteurs associés au développement de l’autorégulation psychophysiologique, telle que mesurée par la qualité du sommeil de l’enfant, ainsi que l’autorégulation émotionnelle et comportementale, telle qu’indiquée par la présence de symptômes intériorisés et extériorisés chez l’enfant. La thèse est composée de deux articles de nature empirique. L’objectif du premier article de la thèse était d’examiner les liens qui existent entre quatre comportements parentaux (i.e., la sensibilité maternelle, le soutien à l’autonomie maternel, l'orientation mentale de la mère et la qualité des interactions père-enfant) et le sommeil de l’enfant, de façon longitudinale et prospective. Les trois comportements maternels ont été mesurés avec 70 dyades mère-enfant, tandis que la qualité des interactions père-enfant a été évaluée chez 41 de ces familles. À 12 mois, l’orientation mentale maternelle et la sensibilité maternelle ont été évaluées. Le soutien à l'autonomie maternel a été mesuré à 15 mois, tandis que la qualité des interactions père-enfant a été évaluée à 18 mois. Le sommeil des enfants a été mesuré à 3 et 4 ans en utilisant un agenda de sommeil rempli par la mère. Les résultats indiquaient qu’en contrôlant pour le statut socioéconomique familial et le fait d’aller en garderie ou non, la qualité des interactions mère-enfant et père-enfant est liée à la proportion de sommeil ayant lieu la nuit chez les enfants d’âge préscolaire. Le deuxième article visait à étudier les effets d’interaction entre le sommeil de l’enfant et la sensibilité maternelle en ce qui a trait au développement des problèmes intériorisés et extériorisés. À 1 et 4 ans, 55 dyades mère-enfant ont participé à deux visites à domicile. À 1 an, la sensibilité maternelle a été évaluée et les mères ont complété l’agenda du sommeil de l’enfant. À 4 ans, les mères ont rempli le Child Behavior Checklist pour évaluer les symptômes intériorisés et extériorisés chez leur enfant. Les résultats ont montré que la sensibilité maternelle interagit avec la durée du sommeil de l’enfant. Ainsi, les résultats ont indiqué une relation négative entre la sensibilité maternelle et les problèmes intériorisés et extériorisés, mais seulement chez les enfants qui dorment plus la nuit. Les résultats présentés dans les deux articles ont été discutés, ainsi que leurs implications théoriques et cliniques.

Le soutien maternel à l’autonomie : stabilité et relation avec le développement des fonctions exécutives à l'âge préscolaire

Bien qu’il y ait de plus en plus d’études sur le soutien maternel à l’autonomie, de nombreuses questions restent à éclaircir dans le domaine. Notamment, on en sait très peu sur ses relations avec le développement cognitif de l’enfant, sa stabilité temporelle et les antécédents de celle-ci. La thèse est composée de trois articles empiriques. Le premier explore le rôle médiateur du langage dans la relation entre le soutien maternel à l'autonomie et les fonctions exécutives de l'enfant. Le deuxième examine la stabilité relative et absolue du soutien maternel à l'autonomie entre la petite enfance et l’âge préscolaire en fonction des représentations d'attachement de la mère, des évènements de vie stressants et du sexe de l'enfant. Le troisième article se penche sur le rôle du soutien maternel à l’autonomie mesuré à la petite enfance et à l’âge préscolaire dans la prédiction des fonctions exécutives de l’enfant, ainsi que sur l’impact de différents patrons de stabilité du soutien maternel à l’autonomie sur les fonctions exécutives. 70 dyades mère-enfant ont participé à 5 visites à domicile. Lorsque l’enfant était âgé de 7-8 mois, les représentations d’attachement de la mère ont été mesurées à l’aide de l’entrevue d’attachement à l’âge adulte (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1996). Le soutien maternel à l’autonomie a été mesuré à 15 mois et à 3 ans à l’aide du système de codification de Whipple, Bernier, et Mageau (2011). Les évènements de vie stressants ont été mesurés à 3 reprises entre l’âge de 15 mois et 3 ans à l’aide de l’inventaire des expériences de vie (Sarason, Johnson, & Siegel, 1978). À 2 ans, le langage de l’enfant a été évalué à l’aide des inventaires MacArthur du développement de la communication (Dionne, Tremblay, Boivin, Laplante, & Pérusse, 2003). Les fonctions exécutives de l’enfant ont quant à elles été mesurées à l’âge de 3 ans à l’aide d’une batterie de tâches (Carlson, 2005). Les résultats du premier article indiquent que le langage de l’enfant joue un rôle médiateur dans la relation entre le soutien maternel à l’autonomie et une composante des fonctions exécutives de l’enfant, l’inhibition volontaire. Les résultats du deuxième article démontrent que le soutien maternel à l’autonomie est stable de façon relative, mais non absolue. Les résultats démontrent aussi que les mères qui ont une fille, qui ont vécu peu d’évènements de vie stressants ou qui ont des représentations d’attachement sécurisées sont plus stables dans leur degré de soutien à l’autonomie. Le troisième article démontre d’abord que la moyenne de soutien maternel à l’autonomie entre 15 mois et 3 ans est un prédicteur plus efficace des fonctions exécutives de l’enfant que ne l’est le soutien à l’autonomie à 15 mois ou à 3 ans pris séparément. De plus, les enfants dont les mères conservent un degré élevé de soutien à l’autonomie entre 15 mois et 3 ans performent mieux aux tâches d’inhibition que les enfants dont les mères conservent un faible degré de soutien à l’autonomie. Les résultats présentés dans les articles sont discutés ainsi que leurs implications.

L’orientation mentale maternelle : relation avec le développement du langage et de la théorie de l’esprit chez les enfants de 2 à 4 ans

L’étude de l’orientation mentale (OM), soit l’habileté des parents à concevoir et à traiter leur enfant comme un individu disposant d’une vie mentale autonome et active (Meins, 1997), a gagné en intérêt grâce à la démonstration de ses associations avec plusieurs sphères du développement de l’enfant, entre autres avec le style d’acquisition linguistique chez les enfants de 20 mois ainsi que le développement de la théorie de l’esprit chez les enfants d’âge préscolaire (p. ex., Meins & Fernyhough, 1999). En dépit de ces résultats, l’étude du développement du vocabulaire et des stades initiaux de la théorie de l’esprit chez les enfants a été négligée dans cette littérature. La présente thèse est composée de trois articles empiriques et vise à combler certaines lacunes de la littérature actuelle. Le premier article vise à examiner les liens longitudinaux entre l’OM maternelle et le vocabulaire expressif chez les enfants de 2 ans. Les deuxième et troisième articles ont pour but d’évaluer les relations longitudinales entre l’OM maternelle, la sécurité d’attachement des enfants et les toutes premières articulations de la théorie de l’esprit chez les enfants de 2 ans, puis 2 ans plus tard, avec la théorie de l’esprit chez les enfants de 4 ans. Les données des trois articles proviennent de cinq visites effectuées au domicile de 84 dyades mère-enfant. À 12 mois, l’OM maternelle a été mesurée lors de jeux libres mère-enfant à l’aide du système de codification de Meins et al. (2001). À 15 mois, la sécurité d’attachement de l’enfant a été mesurée par un observateur avec le Q-Sort d’attachement (Waters & Deane, 1985). À 2 ans, les mères ont évalué le langage de leur enfant à l’aide des inventaires MacArthur du développement de la communication (Dionne, Tremblay, Boivin, Laplante, & Pérusse, 2003). Finalement, la théorie de l’esprit de l’enfant a été mesurée à 2 et 4 ans à l’aide de diverses tâches expérimentales (Carlson, Mandell, & Williams, 2004). Les résultats du premier article indiquent que l’OM maternelle est associée au développement du vocabulaire expressif des enfants de 2 ans. Les résultats des deuxième et troisième articles indiquent que la compréhension des enfants de 2 et 4 ans aux tâches de théorie de l’esprit est associée à l’OM maternelle. De plus, ces deux articles ont démontré que les garçons, mais pas les filles, présentant des comportements d’attachement davantage sécures ont obtenu de meilleures performances à une tâche demandant la compréhension des perspectives visuelles de leur mère à 2 ans et de celles d’une étrangère à 4 ans. En conclusion, les résultats de la thèse suggèrent que l’utilisation que les mères font de commentaires mentaux à 12 mois semble favoriser l’acquisition de mots dans le vocabulaire expressif de leur enfant à 2 ans ainsi que le développement d’une meilleure compréhension aux tâches de théorie de l’esprit à 2 et 4 ans.