Model-based influences on humans' choices and striatal prediction errors.

The mesostriatal dopamine system is prominently implicated in model-free reinforcement learning, with fMRI BOLD signals in ventral striatum notably covarying with model-free prediction errors. However, latent learning and devaluation studies show that behavior also shows hallmarks of model-based planning, and the interaction between model-based and model-free values, prediction errors, and preferences is underexplored. We designed a multistep decision task in which model-based and model-free influences on human choice behavior could be distinguished. By showing that choices reflected both influences we could then test the purity of the ventral striatal BOLD signal as a model-free report. Contrary to expectations, the signal reflected both model-free and model-based predictions in proportions matching those that best explained choice behavior. These results challenge the notion of a separate model-free learner and suggest a more integrated computational architecture for high-level human decision-making.

大麻受体CB1及CB2在慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠中枢神经系统与免疫系统的分布和表达

吗啡是临床常用的镇痛药物之一，通过模拟内源性抗痛物质脑啡肽的作用，激活中枢神经阿片受体而产生强大的镇痛作用。吗啡属于阿片类生物碱，为阿片受体激动剂，是目前我国主要的毒品成瘾类型之一，对人民生命健康危害极大。目前我国登记在册的吗啡成瘾者约有100万，每年导致的直接经济损失超过1000亿元。因此吗啡成瘾机制的研究以及治疗，是目前神经疾病的研究重点之一。 吗啡成瘾与其结合的受体有关。吗啡除结合阿片受体外，也可能结合大麻素受体，现发现体内有两种大麻素受体的存在：CB1受体和CB2受体。大麻CB1、CB2受体都是G蛋白耦联受体。其中CB1受体主要位于脑、脊髓与外周神经系统中，脑内CB1受体主要分布于基底神经节（黑质、苍白球、外侧纹状体）、海马CA锥体细胞层，小脑和大脑皮层。因此推测大麻CB1受体的功能可能与成瘾、记忆、认知、运动控制的调节有关。而大麻CB2受体主要分布于外周组织，如脾脏边缘区、扁桃体等，它的这种分布可能与免疫抑制作用有关。近来的研究发现大麻CB2受体在中枢神经系统也有分布，目前对其在此分布的功能不明确，推测可能与成瘾、抑郁症等神经类疾病有密切关系。 在药物成瘾导致的精神依赖作用中，奖赏效应是各种药物成瘾的药理学基础。中脑—边缘系统（(mesolimbic dopamine system,MLDS)是药物奖赏效应的神经解剖学基础。目前认为内源性大麻素所起的药理作用与多巴胺能和阿片能的神经传递有密切的关系。因此推断大麻素CB1受体与慢性吗啡成瘾有密切关系，至少是部分参与到慢性吗啡成瘾过程中。 相较于较多的关于大麻CB1受体的研究，有关大麻CB2受体的研究很少。尽管近来证实大麻CB2受体也分布于中枢神经系统，但在慢性吗啡成瘾时，大麻CB2受体表达的改变仍不清楚。在本项目中，我们将对慢性吗啡成瘾动物通过分子生物学、蛋白质化学、免疫组织化学的方法，探讨大麻CB2受体在中枢神经系统的分布和表达，以及大麻CB2受体在吗啡成瘾中可能的作用。 吗啡对免疫系统有抑制作用, 包括抑制淋巴细胞增殖, 减少细胞因子的分泌，减弱自然杀伤细胞（NKC）的细胞毒作用。现已证实激活周围神经系统的CB2受体可诱导IL-4的生成，从而影响阿片μ型受体的转录。此发现提供了内源性大麻系统-阿片系统-免疫系统之间存在相互作用的关系。然而，吗啡吸食是否通过CB2受体从而导致免疫功能的抑制，现在还没有直接证据，在本实验中我们将探讨CB2受体与吗啡成瘾导致免疫功能的改变有关。 实验结果显示（1）应用RT-PCR法，检测到大麻素受体CB1在慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠的皮质和海马处mRNA表达水平与对照组大鼠有明显不同。（2）应用western免疫印迹法，检测到大麻素受体CB1在慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠的皮质，海马和脑干处蛋白表达水平与对照组大鼠有明显不同。在脑干处，虽然mRNA表达水平无变化，但蛋白质的表达水平上升。（3）应用免疫组化检测到大麻素受体CB1在大鼠的皮质，海马，脑干，小脑处都广泛分布。（4）应用RT-PCR法，检测到大麻素受体CB2在慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠的皮质，海马，脑干处mRNA表达水平与对照组大鼠有明显不同。（5）应用western免疫印迹法，检测到大麻素受体CB2在慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠的皮质，海马，脑干蛋白表达水平与对照组大鼠有明显不同。且蛋白质的表达改变趋势与mRNA表达水平的改变相似。（6）应用免疫组化法检测到大麻素受体CB2在大鼠的皮质，海马，脑干，小脑处都广泛分布。但数量明显少于大麻CB1受体。（7）应用直接ELISA法，检测到慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠的血清与对照组大鼠的血清比较，IgM表达下降；IgG表达上升。 实验结果提示大麻受体CB1和CB2 很可能在慢性吗啡成瘾过程起着重要的作用，至少是部分参与到慢性吗啡成瘾的过程中。因为大麻素受体CB1和CB2都属于G 蛋白耦连受体，长期持续使用吗啡，其表达的变化可能会导致cAMP信号通路的上调；提高了腺苷酸环化酶(AC)和蛋白激酶A(PKA)的活性从而激活下游相关基因的表达最终导致成瘾。此外大麻素受体CB1和CB2表达的变化可能与慢性吗啡成瘾后免疫功能的改变有相关性。 通过以上的的实验结果，可以得到以下的结论：（1）我们验证了大麻素受体CB1在慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠的皮质，海马和脑干处mRNA和蛋白质表达水平与对照组大鼠有明显不同，且大麻CB1受体在大鼠中枢神经系统中广泛大量分布，表明大麻素受体CB1很可能在慢性吗啡成瘾过程中起着重要的作用，至少部分参与到慢性吗啡成瘾的过程中。（2）我们第一次证实了大麻素受体CB2在吗啡成瘾大鼠的皮质，海马和脑干处mRNA和蛋白质表达水平与对照组大鼠有明显不同，且大麻CB2受体在大鼠中枢神经系统中少量广泛分布。表明大麻素受体CB2很可能在慢性吗啡成瘾过程中起着重要的作用，至少部分参与到慢性吗啡成瘾的过程中。（3）同时我们发现大麻素受体CB1和CB2在大鼠脑组织中广泛表达，表明内源性大麻系统有可能广泛的参与各种神经疾病，很可能成为治疗的新靶点。（4）最后我们发现慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠血液中IgM表达下降；IgG表达上升，表明慢性吗啡成瘾对机体的免疫功能有广泛的调节作用。慢性吗啡成瘾大鼠血清CB2受体mRNA表达上升。我们证实了大麻受体CB2可能正是把神经系统和免疫系统相联系的一个靶点。

阿片药物依赖的神经机制---内侧前额叶与药物的心理依赖

Mental dependence, characterized by craving and impulsive seeking behavior, is the matter of intensive study in the field of drug addiction. The mesolimbic dopamine system has been suggested to play an important role in rewarding of drugs and relapse. Although chronic drug use can induce neuroadaptations of the mesolimbic system and changes of drug reinforcement, these mechanisms cannot fully account for the craving and the compulsive drug-using behavior of addicts. Acknowledging the reinforcement effects of drugs, most previous studies have studied the impact of environmental cues and conditioned learning on addiction behavior, often using established classical or operant conditioning model. These studies, however, paid little attention to the role of cognitive control and emotion in addiction. These mental factors that are believed to have an important influence on conditioned learning. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has close anatomic and functional connections with the mesolimbic dopamine system. A number of the cognitive neurological studies demonstrate that mPFC is involved in motivation, emotional regulation, monitoring of responses and other executive functions. Thus we speculated that the function of abnormality in mPFC following chronic drug use would cause related to the abnormal behavior in addicts including impulse and emotional changes. In the present study of a series of experiments, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the hemodynamic response of the mPFC and related circuits to various cognitive and emotional stimuli in heroin addicts and to explore the underlying dopamine neuromechnism by microinjection of tool drugs into the mPFC in laboratory animals. In the first experiment, we found that heroin patients, relative to the normal controls, took a much shorter time and committed more errors in completing the more demanding of cognitive regulation in the reverse condition of the task, while the neural activity in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was attenuated. In the second experiment, the scores of the heroin patients in self-rating depression scale (SDS) and Self-rating anxiety scale (SAS) were significantly higher than the normal controls and they rated the negative pictures more aversive than the normal controls. Being congruent with the behavioral results, hemodynamic response to negative pictures showed significant difference between the two groups in bilateral ventral mPFC (VMPFC), amygdala, and right thalamus. The VMPFC of patients showed increased activation than normal controls, whereas activation in the amygdala of patients was weaker than that in normal subjects. Our third experiment showed that microinjection of D1 receptor agonist SKF38393 into the mPFC of rats decreased hyperactivity, which was induced by morphine injection, in contrast, D1 receptor antagonist SCH23390 increased the hyperactivity, These findings suggest: (1) The behavior and neural activity in ACC of addicts changed in chronic drug users. Their impulsive behavior might result from the abnormal neural activity in the mPFC especially the ACC. (2) Heroine patients were more depress and anxiety than normal controls. The dysfunction of the mPFC---amygdala circuit of heroine addicts might be related to the abnormal emotion response. (3) Dopamine in the mPFC has an inhibitory effect on morphine induced behavior. The hyperactivity induced by chronic morphine was reduced by dopamine increase with D1 receptor agonist, confirm the first experiment that the neuroadaption of mPFC system induced by chronic morphine administration appears to be the substrate the impulse behavior of drug users.

VTA-NAc内orexin A在吗啡和性奖赏相关行为中作用的研究

There are a lot of differences in the neural mechanisms underlying between drug reward and natural reward despite the common neual basis. Undoubtedly, revealing the common and the different mechanisms underlying drug reward and natural reward will promote the development of research on drug addiction. Among diversified natural rewards, sex is often compared to drug because sexual reward has more similarities to drug. The mesolimbic dopamine system (VTA-NAc pathway) is a common pathway activated by natural reinforcers and addictive drugs, mediating reward, emotion and motivation under physiological conditions. The neuroadaptations taking place in the central nervous system including the mesolimbic dopamine system after repeatedly drug taking leads to persistent drug craving, Orexin, a neuropeptide produced in the lateral hypothalamus, plays an important role in reward-associated, motivated behaviors. Orexin neurons have extensive projections to the mesolimbic dopamine system. In order to further investigate the roles of orexin A in drug reward, this study examined the regulatory roles of orexin A in the VTA and NAcSh on drug reinforcement (acqusition of morphine CPP) and drug-seeking behavior (expression of morphine CPP). Moreover, the roles of orexin A on drug reward were compared with sexual reward. The main results are as follows: 1. The expression of morphine CPP was inhibited by intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) administered OX1R antagonist SB334867; 2. The male unconditioned sexual motivation was not affected by i.c.v. administered SB334867. However, i.c.v. given orexin A inhibited unconditioned sexual motivation in sexually high-motivated rats but did not affect sexual motivation in low-motivated rats; 3. The acquisition and expression of morphine CPP was inhibited by SB334867 microinjected into the VTA. SB334867 or orexin A injected into the NAcSh did not influence the acquisition of morphine CPP, but orexin A increased the locomotor activity in rats treated with morphine (3mg/kg); 4. SB334867 microinjected into the VTA did not affect male copulatory behavior, neither affect the acqusition of copulatory CPP; 5. The expression of copulatory CPP was associated with increased Fos protein expression in hypothalamic orexin A neurons, and SB334867 microinjected into the VTA inhibited expression of copulatory CPP. These results suggest that, (1) endogenous orexin A is not involved in male unconditioned sexual motivation, but involved in drug craving; (2) orexin A in the VTA instead of in the NAc is involved in drug reinforcement; (3) orexin A in the VTA is critical for drug-seeking behavior, but it is still unclear for the role of orexin A in the NAcSh; (4) in contrast to drug reinforcement, orexin A in the VTA is not involved in reinforcing effect of sexual reward. Orexin A plays a role both in drug-seeking behavior and in sexual reward-seeking behavior, but the different orexin A neuron populations may be responsible for the roles of orexin A in two types of reward. In a word, the differential roles of orexin A in drug and sexual reward are found in the present study, which provides some evidence for further research on the mechanisms of drug addiction.

Developmental differences in locomotor responsiveness to amphetamine in rats

The developmental remodelling of motivational systems that underlie drug dependence and addiction may account for the greater frequency and severity of drug abuse in adolescence compared to adulthood. Recent advances in animal models have begun to identify the morphological and the molecular factors that are being remodelled, but little is known about the culmination of these factors in altered sensitivity to psycho stimulant drugs, like amphetamine, in adolescence. Amphetamine induces potent locomotor activating effects in rodents through increased dopamine release in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system, which makes locomotor activity a useful behavioural marker of age differences in amphetamine sensitivity. The aim of the thesis was to investigate the neural basis for age differences in amphetamine sensitivity with a focus on the nucleus accumbens and the medial prefrontal cortex, which initiate and regulate amphetamine-induced locomotor activity, respectively. In study 1, I found pre- and post- pubertal adolescent rats to be less active (i.e., hypoactive) than adults to a first injection of 0.5, but not of 1.5, mg/kg of intraperitonealy (i.p.) administered amphetamine. Although initially hypoactive, only adolescent rats exhibited an increase in activity to a second injection of amphetamine given 24 h later, indicating that adolescents may be more sensitive to the rapid changes in amphetamineinduced plasticity than adults. Given that the locomotor activating effects of amphetamine are initiated in the nucleus accumbens, age differences in response to direct injections of amphetamine into this brain region were investigated in study 2. In contrast to i.p. injections, adolescents were more active than adults when amphetamine was given directly into the nucleus accumbens, indicating that hypo activity may be attributed to the development of regulatory regions outside of the accumbens. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is a key regulator of the locomotor activating effects of amphetamine that undergoes extensive remodelling in adolescence. In study 3, I found that an i.p. injection of 1.5, and not of 0.5, mg/kg of amphetamine resulted in a high expression of c-fos, a marker of neural activation, in the pre limbic mPFC only in pre-pubertal adolescent rats. This finding suggests that the ability of adolescent rats to overcome hypo activity at the 1.5 mg/kg dose may involve greater activation of the prelimbic mPFC compared to adulthood. In support of this hypothesis, I found that pharmacological inhibition of prelimbic D 1 dopamine receptors disrupted the locomotor activating effects of the 1.5 mg/kg dose of amphetamine to a greater extent in adolescent than in adult rats. In addition, the stimulation of prelimbic D 1 dopamine receptors potentiated locomotor activity at the 0.5 mg/kg dose of amphetamine only in adolescent rats, indicating that the prelimbic D1 dopamine receptors are involved in overcoming locomotor hypoactivity during adolescence. Given my finding that the locomotor activating effects of amphetamine rely on slightly different mechanisms in adolescence than in adulthood, study 4 was designed to determine whether the lasting consequences of drug use would also differ with age. A short period of pre-treatment with 0.5 mg/kg of amphetamine in adolescence, but not in adulthood, resulted in heightened sensitivity to an injection of amphetamine given 30 days after the start of the procedure, when adolescent rats had reached adulthood. The finding of an age-specific increase in amphetamine sensitivity is consistent with evidence for increased risk for addiction when drug use is initiated in adolescence compared to adulthood in people (Merline et aI., 2002), and with the hypothesis that adolescence is a sensitive period of development.

Interactions between the cholinergic and dopaminergic systems during the production of ultrasonic vocalizations in rats

Rats produce ultrasonic vocalizations that can be categorized into two types of ultrasonic calls based on their sonographic structure. One group contains 22-kHz ultrasonic vocalization (USVs), characterized by relatively constant (flat) frequency with peak frequency ranging from 19 to 28-kHz, and a call duration ranging between 100 – 3000 ms. These vocalization can be induced by cholinomimetic agents injected into the ascending mesolimbic cholinergic system that terminates in the anterior hypothalamic-preoptic area (AH-MPO) and lateral septum (LS). The other group of USVs contains 50-kHz USVs, characterized by high peak frequency, ranging from 39 to 90-kHz, short duration ranging from 10-90 ms, and varying frequency and complex sonographic morphology. These vocalizations can be induced by dopaminergic agents injected into the nucleus accumbens, the target area for the mesolimbic dopaminergic system. 22-kHz USVs are emitted in situations that are highly aversive, such as proximity of a predator or anticipation of a foot shock, while 50 kHz USVs are emitted in rewarding and appetitive situations, such as juvenile play behaviour or anticipation of rewarding electrical brain stimulation. The activities of these two mesolimbic systems were postulated to be antagonistic to each other. The current thesis is focused on the interaction of these systems indexed by emission of relevant USVs. It was hypothesized that emission of 22 kHz USVs will be antagonized by prior activation of the dopaminergic system while emission of 50 kHz will be antagonized by prior activation of the cholinergic system. It was found that injection of apomorphine into the shell of the nucleus accumbens significantly decreased the number of carbachol-induced 22 kHz USVs from both AH-MPO and LS. Injection of carbachol into the LS significantly decreased the number of apomorphine-induced 50 kHz USVs from the shell of the nucleus accumbens. The results of the study supported the main hypotheses that the mesolimbic dopaminergic and cholinergic systems function in antagonism to each other.

Investigation of the role of the nucleus accumbens in amphetamine-induced 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations in the rat

There is extensive evidence that the mesolimbic dopamine system underlies the production of 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations in rats. In particular, the shell of the nucleus accumbens is associated with generation of frequency modulated 50 kHz calls (a specific type of 50 kHz call which can be subdivided into various subtypes). There is also evidence that amphetamine administered systemically preferentially increases the proportion of trill and step calls compared to other frequency modulated 50 kHz subtypes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of drug administration route and the role of the nucleus accumbens shell in amphetamine-induced 50 kHz call profile in the rat. Three experiments investigated this by using subcutaneous and intra-accumbens microinjections of amphetamine, as well as procaine (a local anesthetic) blockade of the nucleus accumbens. Ultrasonic vocalizations were recorded digitally from 24 rats and were analysed for sonographic structure based on general call parameters. The results of the three experiments were partially supportive of the hypotheses. Systemic amphetamine was found to induce greater bandwidth in 50 kHz calling compared to spontaneous calls in a vehicle condition. Systemic amphetamine was also found to preferentially increase the proportion of trill and step subtypes compared to vehicle. Moreover, there was no difference in the proportions of 50 kHz subtypes resulting from intracerebral or systemic application of amphetamine. There was, however, a significant difference for bandwidth, with systemic amphetamine inducing greater bandwidth over intraaccumbens application. Procaine blockade of the nucleus accumbens shell paired with subcutaneous amphetamine produced no difference in bandwidth of calls compared with those after a vehicle pre-treatment similarly paired. There was no reduction in the proportions of trill and step 50 kHz subtypes as well, with the procaine condition showing significantly greater proportion of step calls. The results of the study support a role for the iii nucleus accumbens shell in the amphetamine-induced changes on 50 kHz call profile. They also indicate there are more regions and pathways involved in generating 50 kHz calls than the projections from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens. The implications of this work are that frequency modulated 50 kHz subtypes may be generated by distinct neurophysiological mechanisms and may represent a profitable avenue for investigating different circuits of 50 kHz call categories in the rat.

Pharmacological analysis of 50 kHz vocalizations in the male rat

The production of 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations in rats has been associated with both positive social interactions and appetitive behavioural situations. Furthermore, there is significant evidence showing that these vocalizations are controlled by the meso-limbic dopamine system. The purpose of this study was to perform a pharmacological analysis of 50 kHz calls by using dopamine and two dopamine agonists amphetamine and apomorphine, to induce calls. The acoustic parameters of the different call types were compared across each agonist. All three agonists were able to significantly induce more 50 kHz vocalizations compared to the vehicle control. Furthermore, calls elicited by apomorphine had a significantly higher bandwidth compared to those elicited by dopamine and amphetamine. All three agonists also had significantly different pharmacokinetic properties. These observations suggest that the D2 receptor sub-type is involved in the length of call bandwidths.

Les effets d’un traitement chronique aux antipsychotiques sur la poursuite d’une récompense conditionnée

Les problèmes de toxicomanie sont très communs chez les schizophrènes. L’administration chronique d’antipsychotiques pourrait être impliquée dans cette cooccurrence en induisant une hypersensibilisation du système dopaminergique. Précédemment, nous avons démontré chez le rat qu’un traitement continu (via une mini-pompe osmotique sous-cutanée), et non pas intermittent (via des injections journalières sous-cutanées), avec l’halopéridol a augmenté la capacité de l’amphétamine à potentialiser un comportement de recherche de récompense. Dans cette étude, nous avons étudié les effets d’un antipsychotique atypique soit l’olanzapine comparé à l’halopéridol. Un traitement continu avec l’halopéridol, et non pas l’olanzapine, a augmenté la capacité de l’amphétamine de potentialiser la poursuite d’une récompense conditionnée (lumière/son préalablement associés à l’eau). De plus, un traitement continu avec l’halopéridol a augmenté l’induction par l’amphétamine de l’activité locomotrice et l’expression d’ARNm pour le c-fos (marqueur fonctionnel d’activité cellulaire) dans le caudé-putamen. Donc, un traitement continu avec un antipsychotique typique, et non pas atypique, a augmenté les caractéristiques motivationnelles attribuées à un stimulus neutre. Ceci est potentiellement lié à au développement d’un état de sensibilisation comportementale aux effets de l’amphétamine et à une augmentation de la capacité de l’amphétamine de susciter la modulation de l’activité du caudé-putamen. Ainsi, un antipsychotique typique tel que l’halopéridol semble modifier les circuits de la récompense de façon à contribuer à des comportements caractérisés par une recherche et une consommation de drogues d’abus alors qu’un antipsychotique atypique tel que l’olanzapine aurait moins tendance à le faire. Nous suggérons que les antipsychotiques atypiques pourraient être une meilleure option chez les patients schizophrènes à risque d’avoir un trouble de consommation de drogues d’abus ou de toxicomanie.

Effect of levodopa on cortico-striatal and cortico-cerebellar circuits in Parkinson's disease

La maladie de Parkinson (MP) est la deuxième maladie neurodégénérative la plus commune. Les symptômes principalement observés chez les patients atteints de la MP sont la rigidité, les tremblements, la bradykinésie et une instabilité posturale. Leur sévérité est souvent asymétrique. La cause principale de ces symptômes moteurs est la dégénérescence du circuit dopaminergique nigro-striatal qui mène à un débalancement d’activité du circuit cortico-striatal. Ce débalancement de circuits est le point essentiel de cette thèse. Dans les protocoles de recherche décrits ici, des patients atteints de la MP (avant et après une dose de levodopa) et des participants contrôles sains ont effectué des mouvements auto-initiés ou en réponse à des stimulis externes pendant que l’on mesurait leur activité cérébrale en imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf). Dans cette thèse, nous abordons et mettons en évidence quatre (4) points principaux. En première partie (chapitre 2), nous présentons un recensement de la littérature sur les cicruits cortico-striataux et cortico-cérébelleux dans la MP. En utilisant des méthodes de neuroimagerie, des changements d’activité cérébrale et cérébelleuse ont été observés chez les patients atteints de la MP comparés aux participants sains. Même si les augmentations d’activité du cervelet ont souvent été attribuées à des mécanismes compensatoires, nos résultats suggèrent qu’elles sont plus probablement liées aux changements pathophysiologiques de la MP et à la perturbation du circuit cortico-cérébelleux. En général, nous suggérons (1) que le circuit cortico-cérébelleux est perturbé chez les patients atteints de la MP, et que les changements d’activité du cervelet sont liés à la pathophysiologie de la MP plutôt qu’à des mécanismes compensatoires. En deuxième partie (chapitre 3), nous discutons des effets de la levodopa sur les hausses et baisses d’activité observés chez les patients atteints de la MP, ainsi que sur l’activité du putamen pendant les mouvements d’origine interne et externe. De nombreuses études en neuroimagerie ont montré une baisse d’activité (hypo-activité) préfrontale liée à la déplétion de dopamine. En revanche, l’utilisation de tâches cognitives a montré des augmentations d’activité (hyper-activité) corticale chez les patients atteints de la MP comparés aux participants sains. Nous avons suggéré précédemment que ces hypo- et hyper-activités des régions préfrontales dépendent de l’implication du striatum. Dans cette thèse nous suggérons de plus (2) que la levodopa ne rétablit pas ces hyper-activations, mais plutôt qu’elles sont liées à la perturbation du circuit méso-cortical, et aussi possiblement associées à l’administration de médication dopaminergique à long terme. Nous montrons aussi (3) que la levodopa a un effet non-spécifique à la tâche sur l’activité du circuit cortico-striatal moteur, et qu’elle n’a pas d’effet sur l’activité du circuit cortico-striatal cognitif. Nous montrons enfin (chapitre 4) que la levodopa a un effet asymétrique sur les mouvements de la main droite et gauche. À peu près 50% des patients atteints de la MP démontrent une asymétrie des symptômes moteurs, et ceci persiste à travers la durée de la maladie. Nos résultats suggèrent (4) que la levodopa pourrait avoir un plus grand effet sur les patrons d’activations des mouvements de la main la plus affectée.

Le rôle de la neurotensine dans l’expression de la sensibilisation dopaminergique induite par un traitement continu aux antipsychotiques

Les médicaments antipsychotiques améliorent les symptômes de la schizophrénie, mais peuvent perdre leur efficacité à long terme en sensibilisant le système dopaminergique. Les mécanismes sous-tendant cette sensibilisation ne sont pas connus. Le neuropeptide neurotensine module le système dopaminergique et est régulé par les antipsychotiques dans le noyau accumbens. Dans cette région, la neurotensine peut avoir des effets anti- et pro-dopaminergiques via les récepteurs NTS1. Nous avions pour hypothèse que la neurotensine du noyau accumbens module l’expression de la sensibilisation dopaminergique induite par les antipsychotiques. Ainsi, nous avons traité par intermittence ou continuellement des rats à l’antipsychotique halopéridol. Seule l’administration continue sensibilise le système dopaminergique et donc sensibilise aux effets locomoteurs de l’amphétamine. Des microinjections de neurotensine dans le noyau accumbens ont diminué l’hyperlocomotion induite par l’amphétamine chez les rats témoins et ceux traités par intermittence aux antipsychotiques. Au contraire, la sensibilisation dopaminergique induite par un traitement continu serait liée à une augmentation des effets pro-dopaminergiques de la neurotensine. Ceci est indépendant d’un changement de densité des récepteurs NTS1 dans le noyau accumbens. Un traitement intermittent n’a pas d’effet sur cette mesure également. De plus, autant un traitement antipsychotique continu qu’intermittent augmentent la transcription de proneurotensine. Donc, seule l’altération de la fonction de la neurotensine du noyau accumbens corrèle avec la sensibilisation dopaminergique. En parallèle, dans le caudé-putamen, un traitement continu augmente la transcription de proneurotensine et un traitement intermittent augmente la densité des récepteurs NTS1. En somme, la neurotensine du noyau accumbens module la sensibilisation dopaminergique induite par les antipsychotiques.

A Substrate Trapping Mutant Form of Striatal-Enriched Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Prevents Amphetamine-Induced Stereotypies and Long-Term Potentiation in the Striatum

Background: Chronic, intermittent exposure to psychostimulant drugs results in striatal neuroadaptations leading to an increase in an array of behavioral responses on subsequent challenge days. A brain-specific striatal-enriched tyrosine phosphatase (STEP) regulates synaptic strengthening by dephosphorylating and inactivating several key synaptic proteins. This study tests the hypothesis that a substrate-trapping form of STEP will prevent the development of amphetamine-induced stereotypies. Methods: A substrate-trapping STEP protein, TAT-STEP (C-S), was infused into the ventrolateral striatum on each of 5 consecutive exposure days and I hour before amphetamine injection. Animals were challenged to see whether sensitization to the stereotypy-producing effects of amphetamine developed. The same TAT-STEP (C-S) protein was used on acute striatal slices to determine the impact on long-term potentiation and depression. Results: Infusion of TAT-STEP (C-S) blocks the increase of amphetamine-induced stereotypies when given during the 5-day period of sensitization. The TAT-STEP (C-S) has no effect if only infused on the challenge day. Treatment of acute striatal slices with TAT-STEP (C-S) blocks the induction of long-term potentiation and potentates long-term depression. Conclusions: A substrate trapping form of STEP blocks the induction of amphetamine-induced neuroplasticity within the ventrolateral striatum and supports the hypothesis that STEP functions as a tonic break on synaptic strengthening.

Changes in extracellular levels of glutamate in the nucleus accumbens after ethanol-induced behavioral sensitization in adolescent and adult mice

Repeated administration of low doses of ethanol gradually increases locomotor responses to ethanol in adult Swiss mice. This phenomenon is known as behavioral sensitization. However, we have shown that adolescent Swiss mice show either behavioral tolerance or no sensitization after repeated ethanol injections. Although the mesolimbic dopamine system has been extensively implicated in behavioral sensitization, several studies have demonstrated an important role of glutamatergic transmission in this phenomenon. In addition, relatively few studies have examined the role of developmental factors in behavioral sensitization to ethanol. To examine the relationship between age differences in behavioral sensitization to ethanol and the neurochemical adaptations related to glutamate within nucleus accumbens (NAc), in vivo microdialysis was conducted in adolescent and adult Swiss mice treated with ethanol (1.8 g/kg) or saline for 15 days and subsequently challenged with an acute dose (1.8 g/kg) of ethanol 6 days later. Consistent with previous findings, only adult mice demonstrated evidence of behavioral sensitization. However, ethanol-treated adolescent mice demonstrated a 196.1 +/- 40.0% peak increase in extracellular levels of glutamate in the NAc after ethanol challenge in comparison with the basal values, whereas ethanol-treated adult mice demonstrated a 52.2 +/- 6.2% reduction in extracellular levels of glutamate in the NAc after ethanol challenge. These observations suggest an age-dependent inverse relationship between behavioral and glutamatergic responses to repeated ethanol exposure. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Bases neurofisiológicas da dependência do tabaco

A maioria dos estudos pré-clínicos e clínicos aponta a nicotina como o principal agente responsável pelo desenvolvimento da dependência ao tabaco. Muitos trabalhos têm demonstrado que as bases neurais da dependência à nicotina são semelhantes àquelas das outras drogas de abuso. A nicotina induz preferência condicionada por lugar e auto-administração e, portanto, atua como reforçador positivo, esse efeito parece ser mediado pelo sistema dopaminérgico mesolímbico. A nicotina também induz à sensibilização comportamental que é provavelmente resultante de alterações da expressão gênica do núcleo acumbens induzidas pela exposição prolongada a essa substância. A suspensão do uso de nicotina resulta em síndrome de abstinência. As evidências indicam que esses sinais e sintomas sejam mediados por receptores colinérgicos nicotínicos centrais e periféricos. Outros neurotransmissores, como por exemplo a serotonina e os peptídeos opióides, também podem estar envolvidos na mediação da dependência e síndrome de abstinência à nicotina. A revisão da literatura mostra a complexidade dos efeitos da nicotina no organismo. A integração entre as abordagens comportamental, neuroquímica e molecular possibilitará a compreensão dos mecanismos neurais da dependência ao tabaco e fornecerá as bases para o desenvolvimento racional de agentes terapêuticos que possam ser utilizados para o tratamento da dependência e síndrome de abstinência ao tabaco.

Envolvimento do sistema dopaminérgico na sensibilização comportamental ao femproporex

The effects of repeated administration of fenproporex (FEN) on motor activity of rats were studied. FEN-treated group (5.0 mg/kg, i.p., single dose, 7 consecutive days), showed a marked increase in the motor activity of rats, indicating that the drug induced behavioral sensitization. Repeated coadministration of haloperidol prevented the development of sensitization to repeated administration of FEN. Repeated administration of FEN increased also locomotor activity measured in the open field, ratifying the occurence of sensitization. These findings indicated development of sensitization to repeated FEN administration and that the dopamine system might be involved in the mechanism of sensitization.