Analysis of the kinetics of phase and amplitude gratings recorded in azopolymer films

In this work we use a stabilized holographic technique to study both refractive index and absorption gratings recorded in thin films made of Disperse Red 1 (DR1) embedded in an organic polymer matrix (PMMA) deposited on glass substrate. Gratings are recorded by linearly polarized illumination with the interference pattern of two crossing beams. One of the beams is phase modulated and the interference signals between the transmitted and diffracted waves are detected by a tuned lock-in amplifier. The technique allows measuring separately changes of the refractive index and the absorption coefficient during the course of the photoreaction process. The time evolution of the diffraction efficiencies during recording has shown bi-exponential kinetics for both gratings. © 2008 American Institute of Physics.

Preparação e caracterização óptica de filmes de ORMOSIL obtidos via processo sol-gel dopados com azocorantes

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Rotational diffusion membrane and fluorescence anisotropy.

Structural properties of model membranes, such as lipid vesicles, may be investigated through the addition of fluorescent probes. After incorporation, the fluorescent molecules are excited with linearly polarized light and the fluorescence emission is depolarized due to translational as well as rotational diffusion during the lifetime of the excited state. The monitoring of emitted light is undertaken through the technique of time-resolved fluorescence: the intensity of the emitted light informs on fluorescence decay times, and the decay of the components of the emitted light yield rotational correlation times which inform on the fluidity of the medium. The fluorescent molecule DPH, of uniaxial symmetry, is rather hydrophobic and has collinear transition and emission moments. It has been used frequently as a probe for the monitoring of the fluidity of the lipid bilayer along the phase transition of the chains. The interpretation of experimental data requires models for localization of fluorescent molecules as well as for possible restrictions on their movement. In this study, we develop calculations for two models for uniaxial diffusion of fluorescent molecules, such as DPH, suggested in several articles in the literature. A zeroth order test model consists of a free randomly rotating dipole in a homogeneous solution, and serves as the basis for the study of the diffusion of models in anisotropic media. In the second model, we consider random rotations of emitting dipoles distributed within cones with their axes perpendicular to the vesicle spherical geometry. In the third model, the dipole rotates in the plane of the of bilayer spherical geometry, within a movement that might occur between the monolayers forming the bilayer. For each of the models analysed, two methods are used by us in order to analyse the rotational diffusion: (I) solution of the corresponding rotational diffusion equation for a single molecule, taking into account the boundary conditions imposed by the models, for the probability of the fluorescent molecule to be found with a given configuration at time t. Considering the distribution of molecules in the geometry proposed, we obtain the analytical expression for the fluorescence anisotropy, except for the cone geometry, for which the solution is obtained numerically; (II) numerical simulations of a restricted rotational random walk in the two geometries corresponding to the two models. The latter method may be very useful in the cases of low-symmetry geometries or of composed geometries.

Photoproduktion neutraler Pionen am Proton mit linear polarisierten Photonen im Bereich der Delta(1232)-Resonanz

Hinweise auf die innere Struktur des Nukleons, dessenbeobachtbares Quadrupolmoment verschwindet, lassen sich u.a.durch die Untersuchung des N->Delta(1232)-Übergangsgewinnen. Dieser wird von der magnetischen Dipolanregung M1- einem Spinflip-Übergang - dominiert. In der Reaktion (gamma(lin. pol.) p -> p pi0) gelingt es mittels der Photonasymmetrie Sigma, das Signal der kleinen elektrischen Quadrupolamplitude E2 in einem Interferenztermmit der M1-Amplitude zu verstärken und das VerhältnisREM=E2/M1 des betrachteten Übergangs zu bestimmen. DieE2-Amplitude des N->Delta-Übergangs läßt auf eineDeformation des Nukleons und/oder der Delta-Resonanzschließen. Das zugehörige Experiment wurde am MainzerElektronenbeschleuniger MAMI durchgeführt. Durch kohärenteBremsstrahlung der Elektronen an einem Diamantradiatorstanden im Bereich der Delta(1232)-Resonanz linear polarisierte Photonen zur Verfügung. Insgesamt wurden reellePhotonen im Bereich Egamma=(200-790) MeV von derA2-Photonenmarkierungsanlage (Glasgow--Tagger)energiemarkiert. Mit dem Photonenspektrometer TAPS wurden die pi0-Mesonen über ihre beiden Zerfallsphotonennachgewiesen. Die gewählte Anordnung der 504BaF2-Einzelkristalle um ein Flüssigwasserstofftargeterlaubte den pi0-Nachweis im vollen Polarwinkelbereich. Die Datenbasis zur pi0-Photoproduktion am Proton konntehinsichtlich der Wirkungsquerschnitte und Photonasymmetriendurch Datenpunkte über den gesamten Polarwinkelbereichhinweg nachdrücklich erweitert werden.Eine weiterführende Multipolanalyse der neuen(Proton-pi0)-Daten ermöglichte im Energiebereich derDelta-Resonanz die Bestimmung der s- und p-WellenIsospinamplituden von E0+, M1-, E1+ und M1+.

Photoproduktion neutraler Pionen am Proton mit linear polarisierten Photonen im Bereich der Schwelle

Diese Arbeit beschreibt ein Experiment zur Photoproduktionneutraler Pionen am Proton im Schwellenbereich. DurchVerwendung linear polarisierter Photonen konnte neben dentotalen und differentiellen Wirkungsquerschnitten zum erstenMal die Photonasymmetrie nahe der Schwelle gemessen werden.Besonderes Interesse galt dem aus diesen physikalischenObservablen bestimmbaren s-Wellen-Multipol E0+ sowie der erstmaligen Bestimmung aller drei p-Wellen-KombinationenP1, P2 und P3 im Bereich der Schwelle.Das Experiment wurde 1995/1996 am ElektronenbeschleunigerMAMI (Mainzer Mikrotron) der Universität Mainz durchgeführt.Durch Verwendung eines Diamanten als Bremsstrahltarget fürdie Elektronen wurden über den Prozeß der kohärentenBremsstrahlung linear polarisierte Photonen erzeugt. DieEnergie der Photonen wurde über die Messung der Energie der gestreuten Elektronen in der MainzerPhotonenmarkierungsanlage bestimmt. Der Detektor TAPS, eineAnordnung aus 504 BaF2-Modulen, war um einFlüssigwasserstofftarget aufgebaut. In den Modulen wurdendie im Target produzierten neutralen Pionen über ihrenZerfall in zwei Photonen nachgewiesen.Die totalen und differentiellen Wirkungsquerschnitte wurdenim Energiebereich zwischen der Schwelle von 144.7 MeV und168 MeV gemessen. Die erstmals gemessene Photonasymmetriefür 159.5 MeV ist positiv und hat einen Wert von+0.217+/-0.046 für einen Polarwinkel von 90 Grad. Der Multipol E0+ und die drei p-Wellen-Kombinationen wurden andie physikalischen Observablen über zwei unterschiedlicheMethoden angepaßt, die übereinstimmende Ergebnisselieferten. Die Vorhersagen der Niederenergietheoreme derchiralen Störungstheorie für P1 und P2 stimmen beiEinbeziehung der statistischen und systematischen Fehler mitden experimentellen Werten überein.

Yellow laser light generation by frequency doubling of the output from a master oscillator fiber power amplifier system

We present a power-scalable approach for yellow laser-light generation based on standard Ytterbium (Yb) doped fibers. To force the cavity to lase at 1154 nm, far above the gain-maximum, measures must be taken to fulfill lasing condition and to suppress competing amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) in the high-gain region. To prove the principle we built a fiber-laser cavity and a fiber-amplifier both at 1154 nm. In between cavity and amplifier we suppressed the ASE by 70 dB using a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) based filter. Finally we demonstrated efficient single pass frequency doubling to 577 nm with a periodically poled lithium niobate crystal (PPLN). With our linearly polarized 1154 nm master oscillator power fiber amplifier (MOFA) system we achieved slope efficiencies of more than 15 % inside the cavity and 24 % with the fiber-amplifier. The frequency doubling followed the predicted optimal efficiency achievable with a PPLN crystal. So far we generated 1.5 W at 1154nm and 90 mW at 577 nm. Our MOFA approach for generation of 1154 nm laser radiation is power-scalable by using multi-stage amplifiers and large mode-area fibers and is therefore very promising for building a high power yellow laser-light source of several tens of Watt.

Ultra intense laser/plasma interaction at normal incidence: Relativistic mirrors effects, high harmonics generation and absorption.

An analytical study of the relativistic interaction of a linearly-polarized laser-field of w frequency with highly overdense plasma is presented. Very intense high harmonics are generated produced by relativistic mirrors effects due to the relativistic electron plasma oscillation. Also, in agreement with 1D Particle-In-Cell Simulations (PICS), the model self-consistently explains the transition between the sheath inverse bremsstrahlung (SIB) absorption regime and the J×B heating (responsible for the 2w electron bunches), as well as the mean electron energy.

Experimental measurements of the scattered-light polarization from different liquid flows

An experimental system designed to measure very low optical powers, of the order of a few picowatts, is presented. Its main aid is to detect the polarisation state of scattered light from a fluid flow, in different angular directions with respect to the longitudinal axis of the flow. A laser beam incident linearly polarized crosses the fluid flow orthogonally. The scattered light is detected by means of a photodetector situated behind a lineal polarizer whose orientation can be rotated. The outgoing electrical signal is amplified by means of a Mode-lockin amplifier and is digitally processed.

Selectively filled photonic liquid crystal fibers = Fibras de cristal fotónico selectivamente llenas con cristal líquido

El presente trabajo de Tesis se ha centrado en el diseño, fabricación y caracterización de dispositivos basados en fibras de cristal fotónico infiltrado selectivamente con cristales líquidos, polímeros y una mezcla de ambos. Todos los dispositivos son sintonizables, y su área de aplicación se centra en comunicaciones ópticas y sensores. La manipulación y fusionado de fibras fotónicas, el llenado selectivo de determinadas cavidades y la alineación recíproca de fibras mantenedoras de polarización son tareas muy específicas y delicadas para las que se requieren protocolos muy estrictos. Previo a la fabricación de dispositivos ha sido necesaria por tanto una tarea de sistematización y creación de protocolos de fabricación. Una vez establecidos se ha procedido a la fabricación y caracterización de dispositivos. Los dispositivos fabricados se enumeran a continuación para posteriormente detallar una a una las singularidades de cada uno. • Interferómetros intermodales hechos a partir de una porción de fibra fotónica soldada entre dos fibras estándar, bien monomodo o PANDA (mantenedora de polarización). Estos interferómetros han sido sumergidos o bien llenados selectivamente con cristales líquidos para así sintonizar la señal interferométrica guiada a través de la fibra. • Infiltración de fibras fotónicas con cristales líquidos colestéricos con especial énfasis en la fase azul (blue phase) de estos materiales. Las moléculas de cristal líquido se autoalinean en volumen por lo que la infiltración de fibras fotónicas con estos cristales líquidos es muy interesante, pues es conocida la dificultad de alinear apropiadamente cristales líquidos dentro de cavidades micrométricas de las fibras fotónicas. • Grabación de redes holográficas de forma selectiva en las cavidades de una fibra fotónica. Estas redes holográficas, llamadas POLICRYPS (POlymer-LIquid CRYstal-Polymer Slices), son redes fabricadas a base de franjas de polímero y cristal líquido alineado perpendicularmente a dichas franjas. Las franjas son a su vez perpendiculares al eje de la fibra como lo puede ser una red de Bragg convencional. El cristal líquido, al estar alineado perpendicularmente a dichos franjas y paralelo al eje de la fibra, se puede conmutar aplicando un campo eléctrico externo, modificando así el índice efectivo de la red. Se puede fabricar por lo tanto una red de Bragg sintonizable en fibra, muy útil en comunicaciones ópticas. • Llenado selectivo de fibras fotónicas con polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS), un polímero de tipo silicona. Si se realiza un llenado selectivo asimétrico se puede inducir birrefringencia en la fibra. El índice de refracción del PDMS tiene una fuerte dependencia térmica, por lo que se puede sintonizar la birrefringencia de la fibra. • Estudio teórico de llenado selectivo de fibras fotónicas con PDMS dopado con nanopartículas de plata de 5, 40 y 80 nm. Estas nanopartículas poseen un pico de absorción en torno a los 450 nm debido a resonancias superficiales localizadas de plasmones (LSPR). La resonancia del plasmon tiene una fuerte dependencia con el índice de refracción del material colindante, y al ser éste PDMS, la variación de índice de refracción se ve amplificada, obteniendo una absorción sintonizable. Se ha propuesto la fabricación de polarizadores sintonizables usando esta técnica. Como ya se ha dicho, previamente a la fabricación ha sido necesaria la protocolización de diversos procedimientos de fabricación de alta complejidad, así como protocolizar el proceso de toma de medidas para optimizar los resultados. Los procedimientos que han requerido la formulación de protocolos específicos han sido los siguientes: • Llenado selectivo de cavidades en una fibra fotónica. Dichas fibras tienen generalmente un diámetro externo de 125 μm, y sus cavidades son de entre 5 y 10 μm de diámetro. Se han desarrollado tres técnicas diferentes para el llenado/bloqueado selectivo, pudiéndose combinar varios protocolos para la optimización del proceso. Las técnicas son las siguientes: o Llenado y bloqueado con un prepolímero. Dicho prepolímero, también llamado adhesivo óptico, está inicialmente en estado líquido y posee una cierta viscosidad. Las cavidades de la fibra fotónica que se desea llenar o bloquear poseen un diámetro diferente al resto, por lo que en el proceso de llenado aparecen dos frentes de llenado dependientes de su diámetro. A mayor diámetro, mayor velocidad de llenado. Polimerizando cuando existe dicha diferencia en los frentes se puede cortar por medio, obteniendo así una fibra parcialmente bloqueada. o Colapsamiento de las cavidades de menor diámetro mediante aplicación de calor. El calor producido por un arco voltaico de una soldadora de fibra estándar fusiona el material exterior de la fibra produciendo el colapsamiento de las cavidades de menor diámetro. En esta técnica también es necesaria una diferencia de diámetros en las cavidades de la fibra. o Bloqueo una a una de las cavidades de la fibra fotónica con adhesivo óptico. Este procedimiento es muy laborioso y requiere mucha precisión. Con este sistema se pueden bloquear las cavidades deseadas de una fibra sin importar su diámetro. • Alineación de una fuente de luz linealmente polarizada con una fibra mantenedora de polarización ya sea PANDA o fotónica. Así mismo también se han alineado entre sí fibras mantenedoras de polarización, para que sus ejes rápidos se fusionen paralelos y así el estado de polarización de la luz guiada se mantenga. • Sistematización de toma de medidas para caracterizar los interferómetros modales. Éstos son altamente sensibles a diversas variables por lo que el proceso de medida es complejo. Se deben aislar variables de forma estrictamente controlada. Aunque todos los dispositivos tienen en común el llenado selectivo de cavidades en una fibra fotónica cada dispositivo tiene sus peculiaridades, que van a ser explicadas a continuación. ABSTRACT The present Thesis has been centered in the design, fabrication and characterization of devices based on photonic crystal fibers selectively filled with liquid crystals, polymers and a mixture of both. All devices are tunable and their work field is optical communications and sensing The handling and splicing of photonic crystal fibers, the selective filling of their holes and the aligning of polarization maintaining fibers are very specific and delicate tasks for which very strict protocols are required. Before the fabrication of devices has therefore been necessary task systematization and creation of manufacturing protocols. Once established we have proceeded to the fabrication and characterization of devices. The fabricated devices are listed below and their peculiarities are detailed one by one: • Intermodal interferometers made with a portion of photonic crystal fiber spliced between two optical communication fiber pigtails, either single mode or PANDA (polarization-maintaining) fiber. These interferometers have been submerged or selectively filled with liquid crystals to tune the interferometric guided signal. • Infiltration of photonic fibers with cholesteric liquid crystals with special emphasis on their blue phase (blue phase). The liquid crystal molecules are self-aligning in volume so the infiltration of photonic fibers with these liquid crystals is very interesting. It is notoriously difficult to properly align liquid crystals within micron cavities such as photonic fibers. • Selectively recording of holographic gratings in the holes of photonic crystal fibers. These holographic gratings, called POLICRYPS (POlymer-LIquid CRYstal-Polymes Slices), are based on walls made of polymer and liquid crystal aligned perpendicular to them. These walls are perpendicular to the axis of the fiber as it can be a conventional Bragg grating. The liquid crystal is aligned perpendicular to the walls and parallel to the fiber axis, and can be switched by applying an external electric field and thus change the effective index of the grating. It is thus possible to manufacture a tunable Bragg grating fiber, useful in optical communications. •Asymmetrically selective filling of photonic crystal fibers with a silicone polymer like called polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to induce birefringence in the fiber. The refractive index of PDMS has temperature dependence, so that the birefringence of the fiber can be tuned. • Theoretical study of photonic crystal fibers selectively filled with PDMS doped with silver nanoparticles of 5, 40 and 80 nm. These nanoparticles have an absorption peak around 450 nm due to localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR). Plasmon resonance has a strong dependence on the refractive index of the adjacent material, and as this is PDMS, the refractive index variation is amplified, obtaining a tunable absorption. Fabrication of tunable polarizers using this technique has been proposed. Before starting the fabrication, it has been necessary to optimize several very delicate procedures and different protocols have been designed. The most delicate procedures are as follows: • Selective filling of holes in a photonic crystal fiber. These fibers generally have an outer diameter of 125 μm, and their holes have a diameter around between 5 and 10 μm. It has been developed three different techniques for filling / selective blocking, and they can be combined for process optimization. The techniques are: o Filling and blocked with a prepolymer. This prepolymer also called optical adhesive is initially in liquid state and has a certain viscosity. The holes of the photonic crystal fiber that are desired to be filled or blocked should have a different diameter, so that in the filling process appear two different fronts depending on the hole diameter. The holes with larger diameter are filled faster. Then the adhesive is polymerized when there is such a difference on the front. A partially blocked fiber is obtained cutting between fronts. o Collapsing of holes of smaller diameter by application of heat. The heat produced by an arc of a standard fusion splicer fuses the outer fiber material producing the collapsing of the cavities of smaller diameter. In this technique also you need a difference of diameters in the fiber holes. o Blocking one by one the holes of photonic crystal fiber with optical adhesive. This procedure is very laborious and requires great precision. This system can block unwanted cavities regardless fiber diameter. • Aligning a linearly polarized light source with a polarization-maintaining fiber (either a PANDA fiber as a photonic crystal fiber). It is needed also an aligning between polarization-maintaining fibers, so that their fast axes parallel merge and that is state of polarization of light guided is maintained. • Systematization of taking measurements to characterize the modal interferometers. These are highly sensitive to several variables so the measurement process is very complicated. Variables must be fixed in a very controlled manner. Although all devices have the common characteristic of being selectively filled PCFs with some kind of material, each one has his own peculiarities, which are explained below.

Manipulation and growth of birefringent protein crystals in optical tweezers

We report on the trapping, rotation, and in-situ growth of birefringent tetragonal lysozyme crystals in optical tweezers operating at a wavelength of 1070 nm. Variation of the pH and lysozyme concentration of the solution during growth was used to alter the length to width ratio of the crystals, and hence their orientation in the tweezers. Crystals with the optical axis skewed or perpendicular to the trapping-beam axis could be rotated by changing the orientation of linearly polarized light. We observed spontaneous spinning of some asymmetric crystals in the presence of linearly polarized light, due to radiation pressure effects. Addition of protein to the solution in the tweezers permitted real-time observation of crystal growth. (C) 2004 Optical Society of America.

Design of few-mode fibers with up to 12 modes and low differential mode delay

In this paper, we investigate the design of few-mode fibers (FMFs) guiding 4 to 12 non-degenerate linearly polarized (LP) modes with low differential mode delay (DMD) over the C-band, suitable for long-haul transmission. The refractive index profile considered is composed by a graded-core with a cladding trench (GCCT). The optimization of the profile parameters aims the lowest possible DMD and macro-bend losses (MBL) lower than the ITU-T standard recommendation. The optimization results show that the optimum DMD and the MBL scale with the number of modes. Additionally, it is shown that the refractive-index relative difference at the core center is one of the most preponderant parameters, allowing to reduce the DMD at the expense of increasing MBL. Finally, the optimum DMD obtained for 12 LP modes is lower than 3 ps/km. © 2014 IEEE.

Design of few-mode fibers with M-modes and low differential mode delay

In this paper, we investigate the design of few-mode fibers (FMFs) guiding 2 to 12 linearly polarized (LP) modes with low differential mode delay (DMD) over the C-band, suitable for long-haul transmission. Two different types of refractive index profile have been considered: a graded-core with a cladding trench (GCCT) profile and a multi-step-index (MSI) profile. The profiles parameters are optimized in order to achieve: the lowest possible DMD and macro-bend losses (MBL) lower than the ITU-T standard recommendation. The optimization results show that the MSI profiles present lower DMD than the minimum achieved with a GCCT profile. Moreover, it is shown that the optimum DMD and the MBL scale with the number of modes for both profiles. The optimum DMD obtained for 12 LP modes is lower than 3 ps/km using a GCCT profile and lower than 2.5 ps/km using a MSI profile. The optimization results reveal that the most preponderant parameter of the GCCT profile is the refractive index relative difference at the core center, Δnco. Reducing Δn co, the DMD is reduced at the expense of increasing the MBL. Regarding the MSI profiles, it is shown that 64 steps are required to obtain a DMD improvement considering 12 LP modes. Finally, the impact of the fabrication margins on the optimum DMD is analyzed. The probability of having a manufactured FMF with 12 LP modes and DMD lower than 12 ps/km is approximately 68% using a GCCT profile and 16% using a MSI profile. © 2013 IEEE.

Theoretical and experimental analysis of excessively tilted fiber gratings

We have theoretically and experimentally investigated the dual-peak feature of tilted fiber gratings with excessively tilted structure (named as Ex-TFGs). We have explained the dual-peak feature by solving eigenvalue equations for TM0m and TE0m of a circular waveguide, in which the TE (transverse electric) and TM (transverse magnetic) core modes are coupled into TE and TM cladding modes, respectively. Meanwhile, in the experiment, we have verified that one of the dual peaks at the shorter wavelength is due to the TM mode coupling whereas the other one at the longer wavelength arises from TE mode coupling when a linearly polarized light launched into the Ex-TFG. We have also investigated the peak separation of TE and TM cladding mode for different surrounding medium refractive indexes (SRI), revealed that the dual peaks separation is decreasing as increasing of SRI, which agrees very well with the theoretical analysis results.

Implementação de conversor de polarização linear-circular para antenas de microfita usando metasuperfícies

This work aims to propose a new model of metasurface with simplified basic cell, able to convert linearly polarized signals generated by planar antenna array in circularly polarized signals, for the ISM frequency band (2.45 GHz), with good bandwidth of return loss and axial ratio. To study the behavior of the proposed structure, the metasurface is coupled to three different structures. First, initial tests are made with the metasurface coupled to a microstrip antenna in its simple configuration. Then the metasurface is coupled to an array with two elements of patch type. And later it is coupled to an optimized array, that uses a stub in its main feed, to get a better impedance matching. The structures are analyzed numerically through Ansoft HFSS™, and to validate these results, the structures are characterized experimentally. The characteristics of transmissions simulated and measures are presented. A good agreement between simulated and measured results was obtained. The structure proposed here has the advantage of meeting the desired characteristics, with a simple geometry to be built using a low-cost substrate (FR-4).

Implementação de conversor de polarização linear-circular para antenas de microfita usando metasuperfícies

This work aims to propose a new model of metasurface with simplified basic cell, able to convert linearly polarized signals generated by planar antenna array in circularly polarized signals, for the ISM frequency band (2.45 GHz), with good bandwidth of return loss and axial ratio. To study the behavior of the proposed structure, the metasurface is coupled to three different structures. First, initial tests are made with the metasurface coupled to a microstrip antenna in its simple configuration. Then the metasurface is coupled to an array with two elements of patch type. And later it is coupled to an optimized array, that uses a stub in its main feed, to get a better impedance matching. The structures are analyzed numerically through Ansoft HFSS™, and to validate these results, the structures are characterized experimentally. The characteristics of transmissions simulated and measures are presented. A good agreement between simulated and measured results was obtained. The structure proposed here has the advantage of meeting the desired characteristics, with a simple geometry to be built using a low-cost substrate (FR-4).