Frugivory and seed dispersal by tapirs: an insight on their ecological role

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Risk of Disease from Wildlife Reservoirs: Badgers, Cattle, and Bovine Tuberculosis

Livestock face complex foraging options associated with optimizing nutrient intake while being able to avoid areas posing risk of parasites or disease. Areas of tall nutrient-rich swards around fecal deposits may be attractive for grazing, but might incur fitness costs from parasites. We use the example of dairy cattle and the risks of tuberculosis transmission posed to them by pastures contaminated with badger excreta to examine this trade-off. A risk may be posed either by aerosolized inhalation through investigation or by ingestion via grazing contaminated swards. We quantified the levels of investigation and grazing of 150 dairy cows at badger latrines (accumulations of feces and urine) and crossing points (urination-only sites). Grazing behavior was compared between strip-grazed and rotation-grazed fields. Strip grazing had fields subdivided for grazing periods of <24 h, whereas rotational grazing involved access to whole fields for 1 to 7 d each. A higher proportion of the herd investigated badger latrines than crossing points or controls. Cattle initially avoided swards around badger latrines but not around crossing points. Avoidance periods were shorter in strip- compared with rotation-grazing systems. In rotation-grazing management, latrines were avoided for longer times, but there were more investigative contacts than with strip-grazing management. If investigation is a major route of tuberculosis transmission, the risk to cattle is greatest in extensive rotation-grazing systems. However, if ingestion of fresh urine is the primary method of transmission, strip-grazing management may pose a greater threat. Farming systems affect the level and type of contact between livestock and wildlife excreta and thus the risks of disease.

Home range, movements and diurnal roosts of the endangered thin-spined porcupine, Chaetomys subspinosus (Rodentia: Erethizontidae), in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Chaetomys subspinosus is the sole species within the Chaetomyinae subfamily of Caviomorph rodents. This poorly studied porcupine is restricted to the Atlantic Forest in eastern Brazil, where deforestation and habitat fragmentation threaten its survival. Data on the ranging and roosting behavior of C. subspinosus is fairly scarce as it is difficult to observe these behaviors in nature and, consequently, it is very rarely detected during field surveys. We monitored the home ranges of three radio-tagged females over the course of 1 year (2005-2006) and collected data on several aspects of their natural history including movement patterns and the use of diurnal roosts and latrines. The animals were monitored at Parque Estadual Paulo Cesar Vinha, a nature reserve dominated by restinga forests, a subtype of Atlantic Forest occurring on sandy soil. The estimated home range varied little between individuals and was relatively small (mean = 2.14 ha/individual and 1.09 ha/individual using minimum convex polygon and kernel methods, respectively). The animals travelled an average of 147 m/night (range: 21-324 m/night) between two consecutive day roosts. The day roosts were mostly located on vine and liana tangles in the canopy which also aid in connecting the canopy to adjacent trees or the forest floor. Latrines were mostly located near the ground in places heavily protected by spiny bromeliads or by other tangled vegetation. Our data suggests that C. subspinosus has the smallest range among all Neotropical Erethizontids which is likely due to its small size and strictly folivorous diet. Our data also helps explain why C. subspinosus is so difficult to observe in nature: researchers should focus on arboreal masses of tangled vegetation where individuals will normally rest during the day. (C) 2011 Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Saugetierkunde. Published by Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Mayaro Virus Infection in Amazonia: A Multimodel Inference Approach to Risk Factor Assessment

Background: Arboviral diseases are major global public health threats. Yet, our understanding of infection risk factors is, with a few exceptions, considerably limited. A crucial shortcoming is the widespread use of analytical methods generally not suited for observational data - particularly null hypothesis-testing (NHT) and step-wise regression (SWR). Using Mayaro virus (MAYV) as a case study, here we compare information theory-based multimodel inference (MMI) with conventional analyses for arboviral infection risk factor assessment. Methodology/Principal Findings: A cross-sectional survey of anti-MAYV antibodies revealed 44% prevalence (n = 270 subjects) in a central Amazon rural settlement. NHT suggested that residents of village-like household clusters and those using closed toilet/latrines were at higher risk, while living in non-village-like areas, using bednets, and owning fowl, pigs or dogs were protective. The "minimum adequate" SWR model retained only residence area and bednet use. Using MMI, we identified relevant covariates, quantified their relative importance, and estimated effect-sizes (beta +/- SE) on which to base inference. Residence area (beta(Village) = 2.93 +/- 0.41; beta(Upland) = -0.56 +/- 0.33, beta(Riverbanks) = -2.37 +/- 0.55) and bednet use (beta = -0.95 +/- 0.28) were the most important factors, followed by crop-plot ownership (beta = 0.39 +/- 0.22) and regular use of a closed toilet/latrine (beta = 0.19 +/- 0.13); domestic animals had insignificant protective effects and were relatively unimportant. The SWR model ranked fifth among the 128 models in the final MMI set. Conclusions/Significance: Our analyses illustrate how MMI can enhance inference on infection risk factors when compared with NHT or SWR. MMI indicates that forest crop-plot workers are likely exposed to typical MAYV cycles maintained by diurnal, forest dwelling vectors; however, MAYV might also be circulating in nocturnal, domestic-peridomestic cycles in village-like areas. This suggests either a vector shift (synanthropic mosquitoes vectoring MAYV) or a habitat/habits shift (classical MAYV vectors adapting to densely populated landscapes and nocturnal biting); any such ecological/adaptive novelty could increase the likelihood of MAYV emergence in Amazonia.

Activity, movement and secretive behavior of a threatened arboreal folivore, the thin-spined porcupine, in the Atlantic forest of southern Bahia, Brazil

Activity and behavior patterns are important components of a given species ecological strategy, as they have profound implications for its survival and reproduction. Here, we studied the activities, movements and secretive behavior of the thin-spined porcupine Chaetomys subspinosus (Rodentia: Erethizontidae), a threatened arboreal folivore in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest. We aimed to ascertain the behavioral strategies used by this species as well as its responses to seasonal and daily climatic changes. Four radio-collared individuals were followed continuously for 72-h in the summer and winter, as well as during 146 half-night sessions conducted from April 2005 to September 2006 in forest remnants in southern Bahia. The thin-spined porcupines were nocturnally active (17:30-05:40 h), with peaks in activity and movement from 19:00 to 20:00 h and 03:00 to 04:00 h. Animals followed a circadian rhythm of activity during both the summer and winter. During the diel cycle, porcupines spent 74% of their time resting, 14% feeding, 11% traveling and 2% performing other activities. Distance traveled during the diel cycle averaged 277.5 +/- 117.9 m sd. The mean movement rate during the night was 21.6 +/- 30.1 m/h sd. No significant changes in activity budget or daily distance traveled were observed between seasons, most likely in response to the low fluctuations in climatic conditions and food availability throughout the year in the study region. However, rainfall reduced the time that the animals spent on feeding activities and explained day-to-day differences in activity budgets. We also provide details about intraspecific interactions and defecation behavior. Our observations confirmed that thin-spined porcupines, similar to other folivorous species, present low activity levels and short daily movements, and have adopted various cryptic habits, such as nocturnality, a solitary lifestyle, the tendency to leave offspring alone most of the time and defecation in concealed latrines.

Study of water use and supply in the district of Independencia, Peru

Peru is a developing country with abundant fresh water resources, yet the lack of infrastructure leaves much of the population without access to safe water for domestic uses. The author of this report was a Peace Corps Volunteer in the sector of water & sanitation in the district of Independencia, Ica, Peru. Independencia is located in the arid coastal region of the country, receiving on average 15 mm of rain annually. The water source for this district comes from the Pisco River, originating in the Andean highlands and outflowing into the Pacific Ocean near the town of Pisco, Peru. The objectives of this report are to assess the water supply and sanitation practices, model the existing water distribution system, and make recommendations for future expansion of the distribution system in the district of Independencia, Peru. The assessment of water supply will be based on the results from community surveys done in the district of Independencia, water quality testing done by a detachment of the U.S. Navy, as well as on the results of a hydraulic model built in EPANET 2.0 to represent the distribution system. Sanitation practice assessments will be based on the surveys as well as observations from the author while living in Peru. Recommendations for system expansions will be made based on results from the EPANET model and the municipality’s technical report for the existing distribution system. Household water use and sanitation surveys were conducted with 84 families in the district revealing that upwards of 85% store their domestic water in regularly washed containers with lids. Over 80% of those surveyed are drinking water that is treated, mostly boiled. Of those surveyed, over 95% reported washing their hands and over 60% mentioned at least one critical time for hand washing when asked for specific instances. From the surveys, it was also discovered that over 80% of houses are properly disposing of excrement, in either latrines or septic tanks. There were 43 families interviewed with children five years of age or under, and just over 18% reported the child had a case of diarrhea within the last month at the time of the interview. Finally, from the surveys it was calculated that the average water use per person per day is about 22 liters. Water quality testing carried out by a detachment of the U.S. Navy revealed that the water intended for consumption in the houses surveyed was not suitable for consumption, with a median E. coli most probable number of 47/100 ml for the 61 houses sampled. The median total coliforms was 3,000 colony forming units per 100 ml. EPANET was used to simulate the water delivery system and evaluate its performance. EPANET is designed for continuous water delivery systems, assuming all pipes are always flowing full. To account for the intermittent nature of the system, multiple EPANET network models were created to simulate how water is routed to the different parts of the system throughout the day. The models were created from interviews with the water technicians and a map of the system created using handheld GPS units. The purpose is to analyze the performance of the water system that services approximately 13,276 people in the district of Independencia, Peru, as well as provide recommendations for future growth and improvement of the service level. Performance evaluation of the existing system is based on meeting 25 liters per person per day while maintaining positive pressure at all nodes in the network. The future performance is based on meeting a minimum pressure of 20 psi in the main line, as proposed by Chase (2000). The EPANET model results yield an average nodal pressure for all communities of 71 psi, with a range from 1.3 – 160 psi. Thus, if the current water delivery schedule obtained from the local municipality is followed, all communities should have sufficient pressure to deliver 25 l/p/d, with the exception of Los Rosales, which can only supply 3.25 l/p/d. However, if the line to Los Rosales were increased from one to four inches, the system could supply this community with 25 l/p/d. The district of Independencia could greatly benefit from increasing the service level to 24-hour water delivery and a minimum of 50 l/p/d, so that communities without reliable access due to insufficient pressure would become equal beneficiaries of this invaluable resource. To evaluate the feasibility of this, EPANET was used to model the system with a range of population growth rates, system lifetimes, and demands. In order to meet a minimum pressure of 20 psi in the main line, the 6-inch diameter main line must be increased and approximately two miles of trench must be excavated up to 30 feet deep. The sections of the main line that must be excavated are mile 0-1 and 1.5-2.5, and the first 3.4 miles of the main line must be increased from 6 to 16 inches, contracting to 10 inches for the remaining 5.8 miles. Doing this would allow 24-hour water delivery and provide 50 l/p/d for a range of population growth rates and system lifetimes. It is expected that improving the water delivery service would reduce the morbidity and mortality from diarrheal diseases by decreasing the recontamination of the water due to transport and household storage, as well as by maintaining continuous pressure in the system to prevent infiltration of contaminated groundwater. However, this expansion must be carefully planned so as not to affect aquatic ecosystems or other districts utilizing water from the Pisco River. It is recommended that stream gaging of the Pisco River and precipitation monitoring of the surrounding watershed is initiated in order to begin a hydrological study that would be integrated into the district’s water resource planning. It is also recommended that the district begin routine water quality testing, with the results available to the public.

Risk factors associated with first symptomatic infection of {\it Cryptosporidium parvum\/} in an infant population in Bilbeis, Egypt

Diarrhea disease is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in children in developing countries. An estimate of the global mortality caused by diarrhea among children under five years of age was 3.3 million deaths per year. Cryptosporidium parvum was first identified in 1907, but it was not until 1970 that this organism was recognized as a cause of diarrhea in calves. Then it was as late as 1976 that the first reported case of human Cryptosporidiosis occurred. This study was conducted to ascertain the risk factors of first symptomatic infection with Cryptosporidium parvum in a cohort of infants in a rural area of Egypt. The cohort was followed from birth through the first year of life. Univariate and multivariate analyses of data demonstrated that infants greater than six months of age had a two-fold risk of infection compared with infants less than six months of age (RR = 2.17; 95% C.I. = 1.01-4.82). When stratified, male infants greater than six months of age were four times more likely to become infected than male infants less than six months of age. Among female infants, there was no difference in risk between infants greater than six months of age and infants less than six months of age. Female infants less than six months of age were twice more likely to become infected than male infants less than six months of age. The reverse occurred for infants greater than six months of age, i.e., male infants greater than six months of age had twice the risk of infection compared to females of the same age group. Further analysis of the data revealed an increased risk of Cryptosporidiosis infection in infants who were attended in childbirth by traditional childbirth attendants compared to infants who were attended by modern childbirth attendants (nurses, trained midwives, physicians) (RR = 4. 18; 95% C.I. = 1.05-36.06). The final risk factor of significance was the number of people residing in the household. Infants in households which housed more than seven persons had an almost two-fold risk of infection compared with infants in homes with fewer than seven persons. Other risk factors which suggested increased risk were lack of education among the mothers, absence of latrines and faucets in the homes, and mud used as building material for walls and floors in the homes. ^

Use of camera trapping in determining Iberian lynx population parameters: The use area and its limitations

Below are the results of the survey of the Iberian lynx obtained with camera-trapping between 2000 and 2007 in Sierra Morena. Two very important aspects of camera-trapping concerning its efficiency are also analyzed. The first is the evolution along years according to the camera-trapping type used of two efficiency indicators. The results obtained demonstrate that the most efficient lure is rabbit, though it is the less proven (92 trap-nights), followed by camera-trapping in the most frequent marking places (latrines). And, we propose as a novel the concept of use area as a spatial reference unit for the camera-trapping monitoring of non radio-marked animals is proposed, and its validity discussed.

Ingeniería de la conservación: Investigación aplicada para la conservación de la fauna mediterránea amenazada

El ser humano nunca ha tenido una capacidad semejante a la actual para alterar el medio en el que vive. A través fundamentalmente de cambios en el uso del hábitat, alteración de los ciclos biogeoquímicos, cambio climático y presencia de especies invasoras, la tasa de extinción de especies se ha acelerado enormemente. Al crecer más rápido la población humana dentro de las áreas en las que se concentra una mayor biodiversidad (biodiversity hotspots), las tasas de transformación son mayores, por lo que dicha biodiversidad se encuentra más amenazada. Entre los principales 25 biodiversity hotspots globales se encuentra la cuenca mediterránea. Las afecciones a la biodiversidad hacen por tanto que en dicha cuenca mediterránea sea necesario poner en práctica iniciativas innovadoras para su conservación. Pero además de una cuidadosa selección, es necesario el seguimiento y la evaluación de la eficacia y la eficienca de dichas medidas, para comprobar su idoneidad y mejorarlas cuando sea posible. Esta es la tarea de la ingeniería de la conservación. Esta Memoria busca analizar y proponer mejoras en cuatro acciones experimentales de conservación de la biodiversidad que tienen un marco común, la conservación de especies subrogadas del monte mediterráneo. En concreto de cinco especies amenazadas: conejo de monte (Oryctolagus cuniculus, especie llave), águila imperial ibérica (Aquila adalberti), águila perdicera (Aquila fasciata), cigüeña negra (Ciconia nigra) y lince ibérico (Lynx pardinus), todas ellas especies paraguas y bandera. Casi todas estas especies se enfrentan a amenazas comunes, como son la pérdida de la calidad del hábitat, la mortalidad de origen humano, la escasez de alimento o la falta de eficiencia en las técnicas de seguimiento. Las acciones destinadas a revertir o minimizar estas amenazas han tenido un marco geográfico y ecológico común, 49 fincas privadas de monte mediterráneo situadas en 9 espacios de la Red Natura 2000 del centro-occidental peninsular, en las que se ha podido trabajar merced a acuerdos de custodia del territorio. Dichas actividades han sido financiadas casi por completo con cargo a fondos LIFE Naturaleza de la Comisión Europea. El presente documento contribuye a aportar el conocimiento científico imprescindible para mejorar la eficacia y eficiencia de las medidas técnicas de gestión y conservación: la ingeniería de la conservación. Como resultados más relevantes se pueden citar que la selección del conejo de las zonas sembradas aumenta con la presencia tanto de isletas de matorral como de refugios y resulta inferior en las zonas de matorral más cerrado; que la electrocución es una de las principales causas de mortalidad de las rapaces amenazadas, así como que se ha detectado que la mortalidad se concentra en determinadas zonas que deben ser prioritarias para su corrección y que éstas deben pasar por las modificaciones estructurales; que la selección de zonas de alimentación por parte de la cigüeña negra se ve afectada por numerosos factores y que una adecuada ubicación y gestión de las charcas para ganadería y caza mayor puede favorecer no sólo la alimentación de esta especie, sino suponer un lugar de cría para diversas especies de anfibios y peces autóctonos, en franco declive; finalmente, hay que destacar que la mejora en el seguimiento de las poblaciones de lince ibérico pasa por la incorporación de métodos de seguimiento novedosos, como las cámaras infrarrojas en letrinas, dada la capacidad de aprendizaje de la especie. Abstract Nowadays the human being has reached its top ability to exchange its environment. Mainly through habitat change, altering biogeochemical cycles, climatic change and alien species, global extinction rate has increased dramatically. Population increases faster in biodiversity hotspots, thus change rates are higher. Mediterranean basin is included within the 25 most valuable biodiversity hotspots. Affections on biodiversity turns necessary to develop innovative actions to maintain the most threatened species in this hotspot. But further than a careful selection and implementarion, survey and evaluation of those practices is necessary to check its suitability. Those are actions for the conservation engineering. This Memory looks for to analyze and to put forward improvements in four experimental biodiversity conservation actions with a common framework: conservation of surrogate Mediterranean species. Those actions were specifically directed to five threatened species: the European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus, key species), Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) and Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata, both of the umbrella and flagship species), black stork (Ciconia nigra, umbrella and flagship species) and the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus, umbrella and flagship species). Those species have common threats: habitat loss, maninduced mortality, food shortening and lack of surveying efficiency. Actions aimed to minimize those threats also had a common geographical frame: 49 privately owned states within 9 Natura 2000 areas in Southwestern Spain. Actions were developed through lands tewardship agreements, and were even wholly undertaken through European Commision LIFE’s fund. This document contributes to develop cientific knowledge necessary for increasing efficacy and efficiency for implementing technical measures devoted to conservation, the conservation engineering. One of the most outstanding result might be the necessity of including bushy islets or rabbit shelter within sowings when enhacing rabbit populations is the goal. Electrocution is one of the commonest man-induced death causes for raptors, especially for the threatened ones. Areas of concentration of this mortality have been detected, and when mitigation measures have been evaluated, only structural modifications had results. The black stork’s selection of feeding areas is influenced by several factors. An adequate location and management of livestock’s ponds can favour not only this species, but also creating new breeding places for amphibians and indigenous fish species, most of them in a sharp decline. Finally, improving the survey of the Iberian lynx might be achieved through implementing newly developed surveying systems, such as the infrared cameras in latrines.

Host and Environmental Correlates of Multi-Drug Resistance in Kenyan Children with Acute Bacterial Diarrhea

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Industrial Discharges of Metals in Kigali, Rwanda, and the Impact on Drinking Water Quality

Rwanda is a landlocked country located in Africa's Central-East Great Lakes region. It has a population of 7.5 million which occupies 26,338 km'. Its population density (285/km') is one of the highest in the world and has prompted fear of a rapid degradation of the ecosystem. There are no central sewer systems in Rwanda. The use of pit latrines and septic tanks is common in urban and rural areas. People still defecate in the fields (World Bank, 1989). Less than half of the urban population is served by a central water supply. The majority of people get their water untreated from rivers that have been polluted by chemicals and human excreta. In and around the capital city of Kigali, there is a concentration of people, farms, and industries which discharge wastewater into the Nyabarongo River and its tributaries. The Nyabarongo River, a tributary of the Nile, empties into the Akagera River which flows into Lake Victoria. Nyabarongo River water is used for drinking water, cooking, bathing, and agriculture in the Kigali area. There has been very little monitoring of the water quality of the Nyabarongo River and of industrial outfalls located on tributaries of the Nyabarongo River. As a first step in understanding the water quality of the Nyabarongo River, wastewater samples were collected in 1993 from industrial outfalls located on tributaries of the Nyabarongo River. Most of the facilities sampled had no wastewater treatment. The impact of these discharges on the water quality of the Nyabarongo River was evaluated.

Impact of Water Supply and Sanitation on Diarrheal Morbidity among Young Children in the Socioeconomic and Cultural Context of Rwanda (Africa)

This project studied the frequency and of water contamination at the source, during transportation, and at home to determine the causes of contamination and its impact on the health of children aged 0 to 5 years. The methods used were construction of the infrastructure for three sources of potable water, administration of a questionnaire about socioeconomic status and sanitation behavior, anthropometric measurement of children, and analysis of water and feces. The contamination, first thought to be only a function of rainfall, turned out to be a very complex phenomenon. Water in homes was contaminated (43.4%) with more than 1100 total coliforms/100 ml due to the use of unclean utensils to transport and store water. This socio-economic and cultural problem should be ad- dressed with health education about sanitation, The latrines (found in 43.8% of families) presented a double-edged problem. The extremely high population density reduced the surface area of land per family, which resulted in a severe nutritional deficit (15% of the children) affecting mainly young children, rendering them more susceptible to diarrhea (three episodes/child/year).

Uso do habitat pela Lontra longicaudis no extremo sul do Brasil

A Lontra longicaudis, mamífero semiaquático, que usa corpos d’água doce e salgada e ambientes adjacentes para forrageio, descanso e proteção, ocorre do México ao Uruguai. Devido ao seu hábito esquivo, a maioria dos estudos foi desenvolvida por meio da análise de evidências indiretas (fezes, muco, pegadas, arranhados). Além da distribuição e do “status” populacional, tornam-se essenciais estudos de preferência de hábitat, pois possibilitam a melhor compreensão das necessidades da espécie. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar o uso de hábitat da L. longicaudis, na Planície Costeira do sul do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, a partir da análise da frequência dos sinais encontrados, no período de um ano (2012-2013), em relação à disponibilidade dos hábitats (área aberta, árvores esparsas, área construída, árvores solitárias e mata ciliar) e à sazonalidade. Foram encontrados 394 vestígios (88% fezes ou sinais e fezes). Entre os ambientes, a área construída foi usada com maior frequência, apesar da sua baixa disponibilidade. Já, a área aberta, mesmo com a maior disponibilidade, foi menos utilizada. Entre estações, a lontra selecionou distintos hábitats, com maior atividade no inverno e menor no verão no Taim e no Vargas, e maior atividade na primavera e menor no inverno no Marmeleiro. A lontra usou constantemente os hábitats e demonstrou preferência por ambientes que oferecem maior proteção e por locais com barranco, o que evidencia a importância da manutenção da integridade dos ecossistemas regionais para a preservação da espécie.

Separation and identification fresh water leeches of waters resources in Kordistan Province

In the primary studying, known leeches have included into free living and parasitic which the parasitic group, besides of direct impacts like: growth detraction, anemia, making wound in the connecting part with the skin, with making plat for secondary bacterial and molding infections in the toll place, is able to cause to transfer blood flagellate and virus to the fish too. Therefore, by accusing information related to fauna leeches of each area a risk factor from the viewpoint of the possibility of being or accusing transferred diseases by these leeches, one can predict and forehand about them. Freshwater leeches of Iran to present accurate recognition (morphological, molecular) have not been, and there are some limited reports from different parts of the country about them. One of the areas that its leeches have not been identified yet is Kurdistan, By having five latrines and big permanent rivers and 32000 springs and a lot of deep and semi-deep wells and this province is a convenient bed for growing aquatics in the country. Therefore, identifying risk factors for development of aquaculture on water resources is one important factor to access achieving development goals. For recognizing leeches of this province, some samples from 10 stands were token. Samples from under stones, sticking to the fish, turtles, plants and solid substances in the water were separated and after recording their physical characteristics, calming with 10% ethylic alcohol with 10% formalin become fixed and after painting with Carmen acetic acid by standard keys for 7 species of Helobdella stagnalis, Placobdella costata, Hemiclepsis marginata, Erpobdella octoculata, Hirudo medicinalis, Dina lineate lineata have been identified and described. Which Helobdella stagnalis has the highest distribution in the province and the minimum one is Hirudo medicinalis. However, that the data obtained in leeches in Kurdistan is a relatively complete collection in this research, recognizing fauna of these areas needs more studying. The Placobdella costata and Hemiclepsis marginata sticking to the fish were separated among identified species which showed that these are parasites for the fish. The sticking area of those leeches to the skin was accompanied with scales cast, damage to mucous membranes beneath the parasite and bleeding Was associated with Histopathology studying effect includes observing break and disconnection in the leech connecting place to the epithelial layer of epidermis in the skin, destroyed nucleus in skin Epithelial cells with observing necrosis in ulcerative place become of the leech and the sub acute inflammated penetration until acute necrosis with opening in Dermis layer is observable. Kidney of this fish have changes such as: proliferation, like proliferative kidney disease with increasing proliferative glomerular cells and increasing in membranous cells in Capillary corpuscle, observing necrotic cells in haematopoietic tissue of kidney along with increasing in infiltration of leukocyte's cells generally mono nucluars such as lymphocytes and less poly morpho nucluars such as neutrophiles that are symptoms of disorders causing anemia become of nourishing and sucking blood by the leech and creating a chronic kidney infection that originally root is in another place like the skin. Also Hemorrhagic anemia causes losing RBC's is because of using the host blood by the leech. (In this situation, one can see immature RBC red cells in Peripheral blood. To identify potential carriers of the leech to the viruses, after finding them in recorded stands and putting them in 75% ethanol for viruses cause IPN, VHS, IHN, they were tested by PCR that the conclusion of these experiments approved IPN virus in Hemiclepsis marginata and Hirudo medicinalis. This kind of leeches can act like a mechanical carrier and causing spreading the agent of this disease. It is worth mentioning that studying the pathogenicity of this virus for aquaculture sources, mentioned before needs more research. During the study of infected fish with leeches that was done after preparing bloody slides and staining them, no case blood parasites was observed. During a research about infecting fish experimentally to known leeches it become clear that 5 days after being in aquarium including leeches, samples of sticking Hirudo medicinalis leech to the golden carp with scales cast were observed. Including leeches to the fish started with molting the scales in the sticking area in the fish and fish become too uneasy and by rubbing themselves to the malls and things inside the aquarium, tried to separate them. Finally, after around 30 hours, leeches penetrate the skin, feeding from blood and tissue liquids and cause mortality the fish and then they become separated from them. If the corpse of these fish stayed in the aquarium, the Helobdella stagnalis and Erpobdella octoculata would start feeding them.

Frequency and molecular characterisation of Entamoeba histolytica , Entamoeba dispar , Entamoeba moshkovskii , and Entamoeba hartmanni in the context of water scarcity in northeastern Brazil

This study aimed to estimate the frequency, associated factors, and molecular characterisation of Entamoeba histolytica , Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba moshkovskii , and Entamoeba hartmanni infections. We performed a survey (n = 213 subjects) to obtain parasitological, sanitation, and sociodemographic data. Faecal samples were processed through flotation and centrifugation methods. E. histolytica, E. dispar, E. moshkovskii, and E. hartmanni were identified by nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The overall prevalence of infection was 22/213 (10.3%). The infection rate among subjects who drink rainwater collected from roofs in tanks was higher than the rate in subjects who drink desalinated water pumped from wells; similarly, the infection rate among subjects who practice open defecation was significantly higher than that of subjects with latrines. Out of the 22 samples positive for morphologically indistinguishable Entamoeba species, the differentiation by PCR was successful for 21. The species distribution was as follows: 57.1% to E. dispar, 23.8% to E. histolytica, 14.3% to E. histolytica and E. dispar, and 4.8% E. dispar and E. hartmanni. These data suggest a high prevalence of asymptomatic infection by the group of morphologically indistinguishable Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii complex and E. hartmanni species. In this context of water scarcity, the sanitary and socioenvironmental characteristics of the region appear to favour transmission.