Human Security and Crime in Latin America: The political Capital and Political Impact of Criminal Groups and Belligerents Involved in Illicit Economies

Organized crime and illegal economies generate multiple threats to states and societies. But although the negative effects of high levels of pervasive street and organized crime on human security are clear, the relationships between human security, crime, illicit economies, and law enforcement are highly complex. By sponsoring illicit economies in areas of state weakness where legal economic opportunities and public goods are seriously lacking, both belligerent and criminal groups frequently enhance some elements of human security of the marginalized populations who depend on illicit economies for basic livelihoods. Even criminal groups without a political ideology often have an important political impact on the lives of communities and on their allegiance to the State. Criminal groups also have political agendas. Both belligerent and criminal groups can develop political capital through their sponsorship of illicit economies. The extent of their political capital is dependent on several factors. Efforts to defeat belligerent groups by decreasing their financial flows through suppression of an illicit economy are rarely effective. Such measures, in turn, increase the political capital of anti-State groups. The effectiveness of anti-money laundering measures (AML) also remains low and is often highly contingent on specific vulnerabilities of the target. The design of AML measures has other effects, such as on the size of a country’s informal economy. Multifaceted anti-crime strategies that combine law enforcement approaches with targeted socio-economic policies and efforts to improve public goods provision, including access to justice, are likely to be more effective in suppressing crime than tough nailed-fist approaches. For anti-crime policies to be effective, they often require a substantial, but politically-difficult concentration of resources in target areas. In the absence of effective law enforcement capacity, legalization and decriminalization policies of illicit economies are unlikely on their own to substantially reduce levels of criminality or to eliminate organized crime. Effective police reform, for several decades largely elusive in Latin America, is one of the most urgently needed policy reforms in the region. Such efforts need to be coupled with fundamental judicial and correctional systems reforms. Yet, regional approaches cannot obliterate the so-called balloon effect. If demand persists, even under intense law enforcement pressures, illicit economies will relocate to areas of weakest law enforcement, but they will not be eliminated.

Understanding Security

This broad-ranging new text introduces a wide range of theoretical perspectives with a central focus on their application to understanding key issues in global, state and human security in the contemporary world.

Immigration, security and the public debate on US language policy : a critical discourse analysis of language attitudes in the United States of America

The narrative of the United States is of a "nation of immigrants" in which the language shift patterns of earlier ethnolinguistic groups have tended towards linguistic assimilation through English. In recent years, however, changes in the demographic landscape and language maintenance by non-English speaking immigrants, particularly Hispanics, have been perceived as threats and have led to calls for an official English language policy.This thesis aims to contribute to the study of language policy making from a societal security perspective as expressed in attitudes regarding language and identity originating in the daily interaction between language groups. The focus is on the role of language and American identity in relation to immigration. The study takes an interdisciplinary approach combining language policy studies, security theory, and critical discourse analysis. The material consists of articles collected from four newspapers, namely USA Today, The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, and San Francisco Chronicle between April 2006 and December 2007.Two discourse types are evident from the analysis namely Loyalty and Efficiency. The former is mainly marked by concerns of national identity and contains speech acts of security related to language shift, choice and English for unity. Immigrants are represented as dehumanised, and harmful. Immigration is given as sovereignty-related, racial, and as war. The discourse type of Efficiency is mainly instrumental and contains speech acts of security related to cost, provision of services, health and safety, and social mobility. Immigrants are further represented as a labour resource. These discourse types reflect how the construction of the linguistic 'we' is expected to be maintained. Loyalty is triggered by arguments that the collective identity is threatened and is itself used in reproducing the collective 'we' through hegemonic expressions of monolingualism in the public space and semi-public space. The denigration of immigrants is used as a tool for enhancing societal security through solidarity and as a possible justification for the denial of minority rights. Also, although language acquisition patterns still follow the historical trend of language shift, factors indicating cultural separateness such as the appearance of speech communities or the use of minority languages in the public space and semi-public space have led to manifestations of intolerance. Examples of discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups indicate that the perception of worth of a shared language differs from the actual worth of dominant language acquisition for integration purposes. The study further indicates that the efficient working of the free market by using minority languages to sell services or buy labour is perceived as conflicting with nation-building notions since it may create separately functioning sub-communities with a new cultural capital recognised as legitimate competence. The discourse types mainly represent securitising moves constructing existential threats. The perception of threat and ideas of national belonging are primarily based on a zero-sum notion favouring monolingualism. Further, the identity of the immigrant individual is seen as dynamic and adaptable to assimilationist measures whereas the identity of the state and its members are perceived as static. Also, the study shows that debates concerning language status are linked to extra-linguistic matters. To conclude, policy makers in the US need to consider the relationship between four factors, namely societal security based on collective identity, individual/human security, human rights, and a changing linguistic demography, for proposed language intervention measures to be successful.

Building Peace and/or Gender Equality. Changing Attitudes around Peace, Development and Security in International Cooperation in Rwanda.

The times following international or civil conflicts but also violent revolutions often come with unequal share of the peace dividend for men and women. Delusions for women who gained freedom of movement and of roles during conflict but had to step back during reconstruction and peace have been recorded in all regions of the world. The emergence of peacebuilding as a modality for the international community to ensure peace and security has slowly incorporated gender sensitivity at the level of legal and policy instruments. Focusing on Rwanda, a country that has obtained significant gender advancement in the years after the genocide while also obtaining to not relapse into conflict, this research explores to what extent the international community has contributed to this transformation. From a review of evaluations, findings are that many of the interventions did not purse gender equality, and overall the majority understood gender and designed actions is a quite superficial way which would hardly account for the significative advancement in combating gender discrimination that the Government, for its inner political will, is conducting. Then, after a critique from a feminist standpoint to the concept of human security, departing from the assumption (sustained by the Governemnt of Rwanda as well) that domestic violence is a variable influencing level of security relevant at the national level, a review of available secondary data on GBV is conducted an trends over the years analysed. The emerging trends signal a steep increase in prevalence of GBV and in domestic violence in particular. Although no conclusive interpretation can be formulated on these data, there are elements suggesting the increase might be due to augmented reporting. The research concludes outlining possible further research pathways to better understand the link in Rwanda between the changing gender norms and the GBV.

Globalisation, security and international order after 11 September

This article advances the discussion of the contentious question of links between global inequalities of power and violent responses, focussing on globalisation and non-inclusive forms of governance. Drawing on international political economy, the article criticises the nationstate-centrism in much political discourse, suggesting that both authority and security need to be reconsidered - to account for less plausible national borders and controls. It suggests that human security (including issues of development and equality) ought to replace national security as the primary focus of public policy. It draws attention to the intractability of difference, insisting that the terrorism of 2001 has complex transnational antecedents. Realist approaches to international order have become part of a problem to be overcome through further intellectual debate.

The role of strategic intelligence in anticipating transnational organised crime: A literary review

Transnational Organised Crime (TOC) has become a focal point for a range of private and public stakeholders. While not a new phenomenon, the rapid expansion of TOC activities and interests, its increasingly complex structures and ability to maximise opportunity by employing new technologies at a rate impossible for law enforcement to match complicates law enforcement’s ability to develop strategies to detect, disrupt, prevent and investigate them. In an age where the role of police has morphed from simplistic response and enforcement activities to one of managing human security risk, it is argued that intelligence can be used to reduce the impact of strategic surprise from evolving criminal threats and environmental change. This review specifically focuses on research that has implications for strategic intelligence and strategy setting in a TOC context. The review findings suggest that current law enforcement intelligence literature focuses narrowly on the management concept of intelligence-led policing in a tactical, operational setting. As such the review identifies central issues surrounding strategic intelligence and highlights key questions that future research agendas must address to improve strategic intelligence outcomes, particularly in the fight against TOC.

Strategic Intelligence in Law Enforcement: A Review

In an age where the role of police has morphed from simplistic response and enforcement activities to one of managing human security risk, it is argued that intelligence can be used to reduce the impact of strategic surprise from evolving criminal threats and environmental change. This review specifically focusses on research that has implications for strategic intelligence in law enforcement. The review findings highlight the absence of detailed research of law enforcement strategic intelligence. Findings suggest that current law enforcement intelligence literature focuses narrowly on the management concept of intelligence-led policing in a tactical, operational setting. As a result there is little theory on how to improve strategic intelligence outcomes. This is despite the fact that intelligence –led policing is envisaged as a management tool to guide strategic decision making. the review identifies central issues surrounding strategic intelligence and highlights key questions that future research agendas must address to improve strategic intelligence outcomes

The radicalisation of prison inmates : exploring recruitment, religion and prisoner vulnerability

It should come as no surprise that prisons can become breeding grounds for radicalisation and terrorism [1]. In many cases, extremist ideologies can flourish in prisons through recruiting vulnerable inmates to follow their path. Despite being a popular topic among researchers and policymakers, there still remain significant gaps in our understanding and many unanswered questions. This paper provides an overview on prisoner radicalisation, specifically exploring the role religion plays in prison and its link to radicalisation, prisoner vulnerability to radicalisation and the radicalisation process. The paper also outlines the current debate regarding where is the best place to house terrorist prisoners (isolation vs. separation). The paper concludes by identifying the major gaps in the literature and offers concluding remarks.

Habitat for Humanity: Calibrating Best Practice Against the MDGs

Poverty alleviation lies at the heart of contemporary international initiatives on development. The key to development is the creation of an environment in which people can develop their potential, leading productive, creative lives in accordance with their needs, interests and faith. This entails, on the one hand, protecting the vulnerable from things that threaten their survival, such as inadequate nutrition, disease, conflict, natural disasters and the impact of climate change, thereby enhancing the poor’s capabilities to develop resilience in difficult conditions. On the other hand, it also requires a means of empowering the poor to act on their own behalf, as individuals and communities, to secure access to resources and the basic necessities of life such as water, food, shelter, sanitation, health and education. ‘Development’, from this perspective, seeks to address the sources of human insecurity, working towards ‘freedom from want, freedom from fear’ in ways that empower the vulnerable as agents of development (not passive recipients of benefaction).

Recognition of the magnitude of the problems confronted by the poor and failure of past interventions to tackle basic issues of human security led the United Nations (UN) in September 2000 to set out a range of ambitious, but clearly defined, development goals to be achieved by 2015. These are known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The intention of the UN was to mobilise multilateral international organisations, non-governmental organisations and the wider international community to focus attention on fulfilling earlier promises to combat global poverty. This international framework for development prioritises: the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger; achieving universal primary education; promoting gender equality and empowering women; reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; ensuring environmental sustainability; and developing a global partnership for development. These goals have been mapped onto specific targets (18 in total) against which outcomes of associated development initiatives can be measured and the international community held to account. If the world achieves the MDGs, more than 500 million people will be lifted out of poverty. However, the challenges the goals represent are formidable. Interim reports on the initiative indicate a need to scale-up efforts and accelerate progress.
Only MDG 7, Target 11 explicitly identifies shelter as a priority, identifying the need to secure ‘by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers’. This raises a question over how Habitat for Humanity’s commitment to tackling poverty housing fits within this broader international framework designed to allievate global poverty. From an analysis of HFH case studies, this report argues that the processes by which Habitat for Humanity tackles poverty housing directly engages with the agenda set by the MDGs. This should not be regarded as a beneficial by-product of the delivery of decent, affordable shelter, but rather understood in terms of the ways in which Habitat for Humanity has translated its mission and values into a participatory model that empowers individuals and communities to address the interdependencies between inadequate shelter and other sources of human insecurity. What housing can deliver is as important as what housing itself is.

Examples of the ways in which Habitat for Humanity projects engage with the MDG framework include the incorporation of sustainable livelihoods strategies, up-grading of basic infrastructure and promotion of models of good governance. This includes housing projects that have also offered training to young people in skills used in the construction industry, microfinanced loans for women to start up their own home-based businesses, and the provision of food gardens. These play an important role in lifting families out of poverty and ensuring the sustainability of HFH projects. Studies of the impact of improved shelter and security of livelihood upon family life and the welfare of children evidence higher rates of participation in education, more time dedicated to study and greater individual achievement. Habitat for Humanity projects also typically incorporate measures to up-grade the provision of basic sanitation facilities and supplies of safe, potable drinking water. These measures not only directly help reduce mortality rates (e.g. diarrheal diseases account for around 2 million deaths annually in children under 5), but also, when delivered through HFH project-related ‘community funds’, empower the poor to mobilise community resources, develop local leadership capacities and even secure de facto security of tenure from government authorities.

In the process of translating its mission and values into practical measures, HFH has developed a range of innovative practices that deliver much more than housing alone. The organisation’s participatory model enables both direct beneficiaries and the wider community to tackle the insecurities they face, unlocking latent skills and enterprise, building sustainable livelihood capabilities. HFH plays an important role as a catalyst for change, delivering through the vehicle of housing the means to address the primary causes of poverty itself. Its contribution to wider development priorities deserves better recognition. In calibrating the success of HFH projects in terms of units completed or renovated alone, the significance of the process by which HFH realises these outcomes is often not sufficiently acknowledged, both within the organisation and externally. As the case studies developed in the report illustrate, the methodologies Habitat for Humanity employs to address the issue of poverty housing within the developing world, place the organisation at the centre of a global strategic agenda to address the root causes of poverty through community empowerment and the transformation of structures of governance.

Given this, the global network of HFH affiliates constitutes a unique organisational framework to faciliate sharing resources, ideas and practical experience across a diverse range of cultural, political and institutional environments. This said, it is apparent that work needs to be done to better to faciliate the pooling of experience and lessons learnt from across its affiliates. Much is to be gained from learning from less successful projects, sharing innovative practices, identifying strategic partnerships with donors, other NGOs and CBOs, and engaging with the international development community on how housing fits within a broader agenda to alleviate poverty and promote good governance.

Conhecimento comum e perceção do risco na gestão territorial costeira

As zonas costeiras, pelas suas características naturais, disponibilizam à sociedade múltiplas oportunidades e serviços, o que favorece uma ocupação desmedida deste território e a ocorrência de transformações relevantes provocadas pela intervenção humana. A simultaneidade da influência das atividades e intervenções humanas e da ocorrência das funções naturais deste território, revestidas de um forte caráter dinâmico, encontra-se na base do desenvolvimento quer de conflitos do tipo socioambiental, quer de situações de risco costeiro. A contribuir para esta situação, surge também a problemática das alterações climáticas, com impactos em domínios diversos, como por exemplo biodiversidade, pesca ou turismo, com um registo de aumento e intensidade de acidentes naturais associados a fenómenos meteorológicos. Apesar da existência de um conjunto de instrumentos de preservação dos recursos naturais e de ordenamento e gestão territorial, a degradação do sistema natural costeiro é muito visível, com impactos negativos de complexa recuperação. Refira-se, também, o caráter de exceção dos planos de ordenamento da orla costeira, em particular em frentes urbanas consolidadas ou em consolidação, permitindo o contínuo aumento da urbanização na orla costeira. A atuação das entidades responsáveis pela gestão do território costeiro tem sido desenvolvida com um baixo nível de envolvimento da população e maioritariamente no sentido de dar resposta às situações de perigo que vão surgindo, com a implementação de estruturas de defesa costeira, suportadas pelo erário público, cujos impactos se traduzem num agravamento do estado da zona costeira portuguesa, em geral. A região de Aveiro é um exemplo da problemática exposta, onde se registam frequentemente episódios de perigo costeiro, considerando-se urgente a tomada de medidas que contribuam para a sustentabilidade deste território, associada a uma visão de longo prazo, e que deverão passar pela integração do risco na gestão territorial costeira. Esta investigação, com a qual se pretende aumentar o conhecimento científico, desenvolver uma abordagem integrada de diversos domínios disciplinares, demonstrar a relevância da valorização do conhecimento comum e da perceção social na gestão do território, bem como desenvolver uma ferramenta de suporte à gestão territorial da zona costeira, tem como propósito contribuir para a preservação do sistema natural costeiro e para o aumento dos níveis de segurança humana face ao risco costeiro. Nesse sentido, desenvolveu-se um estudo de perceção social em aglomerados urbanos costeiros da região de Aveiro, para avaliação da perceção do risco costeiro e da gestão do território e recolha de conhecimento comum sobre a dinâmica costeira. Concebeu-se, também, um sistema de informação geográfica que permite às entidades de gestão do território costeiro uma atuação facilitada, articulada e de caráter preventivo, suportada na integração de conhecimentos científico, técnico e comum, de perceções e aspirações, de limites, propostas e condicionantes de planos de ordenamento e gestão do território existentes, entre outra informação, e com potencialidade para evoluir simultaneamente para um sistema de aviso de acidentes. Como resultados do estudo empírico destacam-se a forte ligação da população ao mar, de caráter afetivo ou pela pretensão de utilização da praia, a desvalorização do risco costeiro, apesar do reconhecimento do recuo da linha de costa, a valorização das estruturas de defesa costeira, a escassa disponibilização de informação à população acerca do risco costeiro a que está exposta, e a importância atribuída à participação da população no processo de gestão territorial costeira. O sistema de informação geográfica foi validado para o caso da Praia de Esmoriz, permitindo identificar, por exemplo, para cada proprietário de habitação localizada em área de risco, a disponibilidade para participar no processo de gestão territorial costeira ou a abertura para aderir a um processo de relocalização da habitação. Face à pertinência do tema e à expectativa do mesmo ser considerado uma prioridade da política da atualidade, considera-se a necessidade de desenvolvimentos futuros de aprofundamento de conhecimentos em paralelo com uma aproximação ao sistema institucional de gestão territorial costeira, no sentido da minimização dos conflitos entre dinâmica costeira e uso do território e da prevenção do risco costeiro, particularmente risco de inundação e de erosão.

O desafio da segurança na República da Guiné - Bissau. Que vias estratégicas de exequibilidade da reforma do sector da segurança para a saída da crise?

Depois de várias tentativas internas sem sucesso na construção da arquitetação da Segurança na sua dimensão clássica e sobretudo Humana, e depois de várias tentativas infrutíferas da intervenção externa no quadro implementação da Reforma do Sector e Segurança (RSS), e o Desarmamento, Desmobilização e Reintegração (DDR) a República da Guiné-Bissau (RGB) está estruturalmente e conjunturalmente confrontada por uma tendência irreversível da segurança no quadro das políticas internas de segurança e defesa, que situa politicamente o País num 18 Estado em situação de Fragilidade, com incapacidade de garantir o bem-estar e o desenvolvimento, com nível de corrupção elevado, com défice democrático e de Estado de Direito, com défice de padrões de boa governação, e falta de liberdade politica e violações sistemática dos Direitos humanos; economicamente o País é dos mais pobres do Mundo, com elevado índice de pobreza, totalmente dependente do exterior, com vazio de infraestrutura económicas de base, escassos investimentos estrangeiro, elevado endividamento externo e queda permanente de PIB; socialmente, praticamente sem Estado providencia, ocupa a 176ª posição entre os 186 países com IDH baixo, abaixo da média sub-regional e continental, com pobreza generalizada e uma baixa eesperança de vida (48,6 anos), défice de cobertura de saúde e de infraestruturas básicas a esse nível e patente défice de infraestrutura de Ensino; incapaz de garantir a segurança da população, é caracterizado pela insubordinação ao poder político, com Forças Armadas sem formação, desestabilizadoras da paz social e incentivadoras do narcotráfico. É neste sentido que a RSS é vista interna e externamente como a via por excelência da saída da crise de governação política, económica, social e securitária, uma pedra chave na viabilidade da reconstrução da paz, do desenvolvimento e da consolidação e efetivação do Estado de direito- fundada numa perspetiva e abordagem holística, transparente e abrangente, focalizada no tempo e em quatro dimensões: politica, económica, social e securitária, tendo como eixo e chave do sucesso a apropriação, a liderança de Portugal, a abordagem abrangente e coordenada, o smart stratgy-o mecanismo de pressão, de controlo e monitorização de exequibilidade.

A segurança no terrorismo e na indústria dos eventos

Nowadays, safety and security regarding the tourism and events industries are a fundamental subject to society. Portugal’s tourism has significantly increased its number of visitors, whether due to the increasing number of cruisers docking in Lisbon, or due to visitors arriving by air, travelling the country from North to South and staying in the most varied accommodation units. Issues like human security and internal security of the different countries, even the security in the world, as development factors of a modern society, are discussed on a daily basis. On the contrary, few deal with tourism and major events security as being part of internal security, as well as the existing barriers tourism encounters to integrate the system for fighting terrorism. Although two distinct activities, they are complementary and may influence the country’s economy, provided that they can offer certainty to all actors involved. It is this substance that organised crime groups look for when planning terror acts. Therefore, as tourism can offer deception and shelter opportunities and events the theatre of a possible attack, those events assemble all the necessary conditions for an attack to achieve its goals.

To see and to touch : God, honour, and irony in Shakespeare's English histories /

Failed and fragile states that result from intrastate war pose severe threats to the security of both the international system and individual states alike. In the post-Cold War era, the international community has come to recognize the reality of these threats and the difficulty involved in ending violence and building sustainable peace in failed and fragile states. This work focuses upon the development of a comprehensive strategy for sustainable peace-building by incorporating the tenets of the human security doctrine into the peace-building process. Through the use of case studies of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and East Timor, the development and refinement of the doctrine of human security will occur, as well as, an understanding of how and where human security fits into the sustainable peace-building equation. The end result of the analysis is the development of a hierarchical pyramid formation that brings together human security and peace-building into one framework that ultimately creates the foundation and structure of sustainable peace-building. With the development of a sustainable peace-building structure based upon the human security doctrine, the role of Canada in the support of sustainable peace-building is analyzed in relation to the form and level of involvement that Canada undertakes and contributes to in the implementation and support of sustainable peace-building initiatives. Following from this, recommendations are provided regarding what role(s) Canada should undertake in the sustainable peace-building process that take into consideration the present and likely future capabilities of Canada to be involved in various aspects of the peace-building process. ii This paper outlines the need for a peace-building strategy that is designed to be sustainable in order that failed and fragile states resulting from intrastate conflict do not regress or collapse back into a condition of civil war, and subsequently designs such a strategy. The linking of peace-building and human security creates the required framework from which sustainable peace-building is derived. Creating sustainable peace is necessary in order to increase the likelihood that both present and future generations existing in failed and fragile states will be spared from the scourge of intrastate war.

L’étude des questions environnementales pour la consolidation de la paix : une approche intégrative et participative de la sécurité.

Comment concevoir la sécurité et le conflit violent d’aujourd’hui ? Cette étude traite de la pertinence de l’étude des questions environnementales au champ de la gouvernance de la sécurité dans le cadre de la consolidation de la paix. Ainsi, nous cherchons à décrire les liens entre les enjeux environnementaux, la sécurité et le conflit violent, à étudier le potentiel des projets environnementaux pour la gouvernance de la sécurité, de présenter les recommandations pour améliorer la durabilité de ces interventions, tout en considérant la question des écophilosophies. Nous avons opté pour des données de type qualitatif, soit sept entrevues semi-directives réalisées avec des professionnels du domaine des opérations de paix, quatre webémissions et neuf documents écrits. Toutes ont été traitées selon les directives de la théorie ancrée. Notre analyse démontre une interdépendance entre la détérioration environnementale, la sécurité et la dynamique des conflits armés. À l’instar de cette interaction, la « coopération environnementale » et la gestion des ressources naturelles serviraient à établir un dialogue entre les belligérants dans un objectif de bâtir la confiance, mais aussi à promouvoir le développement durable. La participation citoyenne constituerait un facteur incontournable pour développer la résilience des populations et des institutions face aux changements environnementaux et sociaux rapides et par conséquent favoriserait une sécurité humaine plus stable. Or, les réformes de gouvernance de la sécurité demandent une plus grande intégration de la population. Pour conclure, nous avons produit un modèle d’intégration des questions environnementales dans le but d’améliorer la gouvernance de la sécurité dans le cadre de consolidation de la paix en milieux postconflits. Sous forme de six énoncés pratiques, nous expliquons l’importance d’imbriquer les concepts de sécurité humaine et environnementale, d’exploiter les opportunités que présentent les situations d’interdépendances, de considérer davantage les interventions locales, d’adopter une approche participative, d’utiliser la coopération environnementale et de privilégier les approches stratégiques amenant à des solutions gagnantes pour tous.