Body measurements of American boys and girls for garment and pattern construction; a comprehensive report of measuring procedures and statistical analysis of data on 147,000 American children,

Contribution from Bureau of home economics in cooperation with Works progress administration.

Games and songs of American children /

Bibliography: p.[267]-269.

Reading comprehension and mathematical concept acquisition through the use of math stories with bilingual children

Math storybooks are picture books in which the understanding of mathematical concepts is central to the comprehension of the story. Math stories have provided useful opportunities for children to expand their skills in the language arts area and to talk about mathematical factors that are related to their real lives. The purpose of this study was to examine bilingual children's reading and math comprehension of the math storybooks. ^ The participants were randomly selected from two Korean schools and two public elementary schools in Miami, Florida. The sample consisted of 63 Hispanic American and 43 Korean American children from ages five to seven. A 2 x 3 x (2) mixed-model design with two between- and one within-subjects variable was used to conduct this study. The two between-subjects variables were ethnicity and age, and the within-subjects variable was the subject area of comprehension. Subjects were read the three math stories individually, and then they were asked questions related to reading and math comprehension. ^ The overall ANOVA using multivariate tests was conducted to evaluate the factor of subject area for age and ethnicity. As follow-up tests for a significant main effect and a significant interaction effect, pairwise comparisons and simple main effect tests were conducted, respectively. ^ The results showed that there were significant ethnicity and age differences in total comprehension scores. There were also age differences in reading and math comprehension, but no significant differences were found in reading and math by ethnicity. Korean American children had higher scores in total comprehension than those of Hispanic American children, and they showed greater changes in their comprehension skills at the younger ages, from five to six, whereas Hispanic American children showed greater changes at the older ages, from six to seven. Children at ages five and six showed higher scores in reading than in math, but no significant differences between math and reading comprehension scores were found at age seven. ^ Through schooling with integrated instruction, young bilingual children can move into higher levels of abstraction and concepts. This study highlighted bilingual children's general nature of thinking and showed how they developed reading and mathematics comprehension in an integrated process. ^

Stereotype threat and the standardized testing experiences of African American children at an urban elementary school

Stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) refers to the risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group in a particular performance domain. The theory assumes that performance in the stereotyped domain is most negatively affected when individuals are more highly identified with the domain in question. As federal law has increased the importance of standardized testing at the elementary level, it can be reasonably hypothesized that the standardized test performance of African American children will be depressed when they are aware of negative societal stereotypes about the academic competence of African Americans. This sequential mixed-methods study investigated whether the standardized testing experiences of African American children in an urban elementary school are related to their level of stereotype awareness. The quantitative phase utilized data from 198 African American children at an urban elementary school. Both ex-post facto and experimental designs were employed. Experimental conditions were diagnostic and non-diagnostic testing experiences. The qualitative phase utilized data from a series of six focus group interviews conducted with a purposefully selected group of 4 African American children. The interview data were supplemented with data from 30 hours of classroom observations. Quantitative findings indicated that the stereotype threat condition evoked by diagnostic testing depresses the reading test performance of stereotype-aware African American children (F[1, 194] = 2.21, p < .01). This was particularly true of students who are most highly domain-identified with reading (F[1, 91] = 19.18, p < .01). Moreover, findings indicated that only stereotype-aware African American children who were highly domain-identified were more likely to experience anxiety in the diagnostic condition (F[1, 91] = 5.97, p < .025). Qualitative findings revealed 4 themes regarding how African American children perceive and experience the factors related to stereotype threat: (1) a narrow perception of education as strictly test preparation, (2) feelings of stress and anxiety related to the state test, (3) concern with what “others” think (racial salience), and (4) stereotypes. A new conceptual model for stereotype threat is presented, and future directions including implications for practice and policy are discussed.

Culturally Appropriate Authentic Assessments: Exploring the Use of Authentic Assessments for African American Children at Risk for Special Education in Urban Settings

Authentic assessments provide an alternative to informal and formal assessments which may reduce the number of African Americans in special education programs. This literature review will explore the use of authentic assessment for at risk students in special education programs in urban settings.

Stereotype Threat and the Standardized Testing Experiences of African American Children at an Urban Elementary School

Stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) refers to the risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group in a particular performance domain. The theory assumes that performance in the stereotyped domain is most negatively affected when individuals are more highly identified with the domain in question. As federal law has increased the importance of standardized testing at the elementary level, it can be reasonably hypothesized that the standardized test performance of African American children will be depressed when they are aware of negative societal stereotypes about the academic competence of African Americans. This sequential mixed-methods study investigated whether the standardized testing experiences of African American children in an urban elementary school are related to their level of stereotype awareness. The quantitative phase utilized data from 198 African American children at an urban elementary school. Both ex-post facto and experimental designs were employed. Experimental conditions were diagnostic and non-diagnostic testing experiences. The qualitative phase utilized data from a series of six focus group interviews conducted with a purposefully selected group of 4 African American children. The interview data were supplemented with data from 30 hours of classroom observations. Quantitative findings indicated that the stereotype threat condition evoked by diagnostic testing depresses the reading test performance of stereotype-aware African American children (F[1, 194] = 2.21, p < .01). This was particularly true of students who are most highly domain-identified with reading (F[1, 91] = 19.18, p < .01). Moreover, findings indicated that only stereotype-aware African American children who were highly domain-identified were more likely to experience anxiety in the diagnostic condition (F[1, 91] = 5.97, p < .025). Qualitative findings revealed 4 themes regarding how African American children perceive and experience the factors related to stereotype threat: (1) a narrow perception of education as strictly test preparation, (2) feelings of stress and anxiety related to the state test, (3) concern with what “others” think (racial salience), and (4) stereotypes. A new conceptual model for stereotype threat is presented, and future directions including implications for practice and policy are discussed.

The relationship of anthropometric measures of Hispanic children up to the age 5, to economic status and parental stature

Using data from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1982-1984 (HHANES) of the Nutritional Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), the heights, weights and arm circumferences of 217 Mexican-American children ranging in age from six to sixty months were examined to assess whether birth weight, parental stature, and economic status greatly influenced growth patterns of Mexican-American children living with both parents.^ Heights, weights, and arm circumferences were converted to standardized values of height-for-age, weight-for-age, and arm circumference-for-age using norms developed for Anglo-American children (NCHS, 1977).^ Correlation and contingency table analysis were performed to test hypotheses concerning factors found associated with the stature of children in earlier studies.^ While relationships among childhood stature and birth weight, parental stature, and economic status were in the expected direction, few were statistically significant due to the small number of cases in the analyses. Reliable conclusions concerning these relationships require a much longer sample of families. ^

Cardiovascular disease risk factors in Hispanic children identified through a diabetic proband

Prevalence and mortality rates for non-insulin dependent (Type II) diabetes mellitus are two to five times greater in the Mexican-American population than in the general U.S. population. Diabetes has been associated with risk factors which increases the likelihood of developing atherosclerosis. Relatives of noninsulin dependent diabetic probands are at increased risk of developing diabetes; and offspring of diabetic parents are at greater risk. Elevation in risk factor levels clearly began to develop prior to adulthood. Therefore an excess of these risk factors are expected among offspring and relatives of diabetics.^ The purposes of this study were to describe levels of risk factors within a group of Mexican American children who were identified through a diabetic proband, and to determine if there was a relationship between risk factor levels and heritability. Data from three hundred and seventy-six children and adolescents between the ages of 7 and 13 years, inclusively, were analyzed. These children were identified through a diabetic proband who participated in the Diabetes Alert Study. This study group was compared to a representative sample of Mexican American children, who participated in the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.^ For females, there were statistically significant associations between upper body fat distribution and increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure after adjusting for age and measures of fatness. Body mass index was positively related to and explained a significant portion of the variability in systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol, and HDL-cholesterol, for males only. No relationship was found between degree of relationship to the diabetic proband and risk factor levels. The most likely explanations for this were insufficient sample size to detect differences, and/or incomplete ascertainment of pedigree information.^ Although there was evidence that these Mexican American children are fatter and have more central fat distribution than non-Hispanic children, there is no evidence of increased risk for diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease at these ages. ^

Risk factors for metabolic syndrome among overweight and obese Hispanic children attending a pediatric clinic in New Braunfels, Texas

Childhood obesity is a persistent problem in the U.S., especially among Hispanics. Health complications like hypertension, type II diabetes, and metabolic syndrome (Met-S) are being seen at younger ages, and current screening procedures may be inadequate. This study sought to describe the risk factors for Met-S present in a sample of 106 overweight and obese Hispanic children, aged 5-14 years, participating in Nutrition and Exercise Start Today (NEST), a randomized weight management intervention trial at a rural health clinic in New Braunfels, Texas; and to determine associations between these factors and other clinical and socio-demographic characteristics linked to obesity. Baseline data was analyzed for the prevalence of large waist circumference (WC), elevated blood pressure (BP), high fasting serum glucose and serum triglycerides (TG), and low serum HDL cholesterol, in relationship with selected sample characteristics. Main findings included high baseline prevalence rates of large WC (77%), reduced HDL (57%), and elevated BP (30%). WC was significantly associated with BMI percentile and the serum liver function test alanine aminotransferase (ALT) by Fisher's exact test (p<0.001 and p=0.032, respectively), while there were significant relationships between HDL and both female gender and ALT. BMI percentile and ALT were associated with all sets of Met-S diagnostic criteria examined. BMI percentile also had a strong association (p=0.005) with total number of Met-S risk factors, while ALT had a weaker association (p=0.093). WC is a low-cost, simple measure whose use may improve clinic surveillance for childhood obesity and complications like Met-S. WC, BP, HDL and ALT may be used as part of targeted screening for obesity complications like Met-S, particularly in situations where resources are limited.^

The relationship between prekindergarten social and emotional development and academic success among Hispanic children from low-income families

Social and emotional development has been considered an important factor in child development which has been placed at the end of the learning spectrum due to high stakes testing. Social and emotional development consists of the relationships an individual has with others, the level of self-control, and the motivation and perseverance a person has during an activity (Bandura, 1989). This study examined the relationship between Hispanic children’s prekindergarten social and emotional development and their academic success. Hispanic children from a large southeastern city whose parents were receiving subsidized child-care were followed from their prekindergarten year through third grade (N=1,978). Several hierarchical regressions were run to determine the relationship between children’s social and emotional development, during their prekindergarten year using the DECA (Devereaux Early Childhood Assessment), and the their academic success, as measured by kindergarten through third grade end of the year reading and mathematics academic grades, second grade SAT (Stanford Achievement Test) scores, and third grade FCAT (Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test) and NRT (Norm Referenced Test) scores. Hierarchical regressions were conducted for each grade and subject in order to control for demographics and prior achievement. The results of this study revealed that for Hispanic children from low-income families, the best predictor for academic success was the children’s prior academic achievement. Social and emotional development showed no significant predictive value for the third grade criterion variables as well as end of the year academic grades in second grade and kindergarten reading. Evidence did suggest that for first grade end of the year academic grades and kindergarten math, social and emotional development had a small predictive value. Further research must be conducted as to why social and emotional development, after controlling for demographics and previous academic achievement, bears such a small predictive value when it is clear that many professionals feel it is the most important factor for school readiness.

Access to health care among children in the U.S.: Use of health inequalities measures to evaluate progress in reduction of disparities from 1997 to 2005

Much of the literature on disparities in access to health care among children has focused on measuring absolute and relative differences experienced by race/ethnic groups and, to a lesser extent, socioeconomic groups. However, it is not clear from existing literature how disparities in access to care may have changed over time for children, especially following implementation of the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP). The primary objective of this research was to determine if there has been a decrease in disparities in access to care for children across two socioeconomic groups and race/ethnicity groups after SCHIP implementation. Methods commonly used to measure ‘health inequalities’ were used to measure disparities in access to care including population-attributable risk (PAR) and the relative index of inequality (RII). Using these measures there is evidence of a substantial decrease in socioeconomic disparities in health insurance coverage and to a lesser extent in having a usual source of care since the SCHIP program began. There is also evidence of a considerable decrease in non-Hispanic Black disparities in access to care. However, there appears to be a slight increase in disparities in access to care among Hispanic compared to non-Hispanic White children. While there were great improvements in disparities in access to care with the introduction of the SCHIP program, continuing progress in disparities may depend on continuation of the SCHIP program or similar targeted health policy programs. ^

A cross-sectional analysis of physical activity and obesity in inner city Houston Texas Mexican American youth

Obesity prevalence among children and adolescents is rising. It is one of the most attributable causes of hospitalization and death. Overweight and obese children are more likely to suffer from associated conditions such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, chronic inflammation, increased blood clotting tendency, endothelial dysfunction, hyperinsulinemia, and asthma. These children and adolescents are also more likely to be overweight and obese in adulthood. Interestingly, rates of obesity and overweight are not evenly distributed across racial and ethnic groups. Mexican American youth have higher rates of obesity and are at higher risk of becoming obese than non-Hispanic black and non-Hispanic white children. ^ Methods. This cross-sectional study describes the association between rates of obesity and physical activity in a sample of 1313 inner-city Mexican American children and adolescents (5-19 years of age) in Houston, Texas. This study is important because it will contribute to our understanding of childhood and adolescent obesity in this at-risk population. ^ Data from the Mexican American Feasibility Cohort using the Mano a Mano questionnaire are used to describe this population's status of obesity and physical activity. An initial sample taken from 5000 households in inner city Houston Texas was used as the baseline for this prospective cohort. The questionnaire was given in person to the participants to complete (or to parents for younger children) at a home visit by two specially trained bilingual interviewers. Analysis comprised prevalence estimates of obesity represented as percentile rank (<85%= normal weight, >85%= at risk, >95%= obese) by age and gender. The association between light, moderate, strenuous activity, and obesity was also examined using linear regression. ^ Results. Overall, 46% of this Mexican American Feasibility cohort is overweight or obese. The prevalence for children in the 6-11 age range (53.2%) was significantly greater than that reported from NHANES, 1999–2002 data (39.4%). Although the percentage of overweight and obese among the 12-19 year olds was greater than that reported in NHANES (38.5% versus 38.6%) this difference was not statistically significant. ^ A significant association between BMI and sit time and moderate physical activity (both p < 0.05) found in this sample. For males, this association was significant for moderate physical activity (p < 0.01). For the females, this association was significant for BMI and sit time (p < 0.05). These results need to be interpreted in the light of design and measurement limitations. ^ Conclusion. This study supports observations that the inner city Houston Texas Mexican American child and adolescent population is more overweight and obese than nationally reported figures, and that there are positive relationships between BMI, activity levels, and sit time in this population. This study supports the need for public health initiatives within the Houston Hispanic community. ^

Lifetime prevalence and risk factors for cancer in a Mexican American population with severe health disparities: The Cameron County Hispanic Cohort

Retrospective data from the Cameron Country Hispanic Cohort (1) were analyzed to assess the burden of cancer in the Mexican American population living in Brownsville TX. Data provided by the study participants for themselves and their parents and other extended relatives on cancer and related risk factors were used to determine both the prevalence of cancer and these risk factors as well as any associations between them. Lifetime incidence of cancer among the study participants was of 2.8%. Lifetime incidence of cancer among the parents of the study population was calculated for cancer in general and for specific cancer sites to determine the ranking of occurrence of each type of cancer. Some cancer types in this population were ranked higher than what would be expected when compared with national data from Hispanics in the U.S, these were: Liver cancer (3rd vs. 7th nationally in males and 6th vs. 13th nationally in females), stomach cancer (4th vs. 8th nationally in males and 5th vs. 11th nationally in females) and ovarian cancer (3rd vs. 8th nationally in females). A significant association with cancer was found for being born in the United States compared to being born elsewhere (O.R. 1.62, 95% C.I. 1.01–2.60) among study participants and the same association was also found between birth of parents in the United States regardless of gender for cancers in general (O.R. 1.38 95% C.I. 1.12–1.70), stomach cancer (O.R. 1.92 95% C.I. 1.01–3.67) and colorectal cancer (O.R. 2.93 95% C.I. 1.28–6.72). Having been born in the United States and having a family history of cancer was also found to be significantly associated with other risk factors for cancer such as obesity, diabetes and insulin resistance, both among the parents and the participant population, suggesting these interactions are complex. These high rates of cancer and particular prominence of less usual cancer such as liver and ovary in health disparities warrant evaluation of early detection strategies.^

Guardians of Generations: African American Grandparent Caregivers for Children of HIV/AIDS Infected Parents

Grandparents, particularly, grandmothers in the African American community have historically provided needed care for their grandchildren (Crewe, 2003). Before there was a child welfare system that addressed the needs of African American children, there were grandmothers who served as the safety net for their biological, informally adopted grandchildren, and other minor relatives. They cared for grandchildren and others whose birth parents were unable or unwilling to care for them. For families of color, HIV/AIDS is an emerging issue that is contributing to the growing numbers of grandparent-headed households. And once again, many African American grandmothers have accepted the challenge of holding their families together. This article addresses the HIV/AIDS public health challenge in the African American community with specific focus on its impact on older grandparents responsible for raising children of infected biological parents. It advocates for a model that continues to strengthen the Children’s Bureau investment in kinship care through integrating the needs of children and their aging caregivers.

The experiences of Cuban American women attending a Hispanic serving institution and the influences on identity development

The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding and gather insight into the experiences of Cuban American women attending a 4-year, public, Hispanic Serving Institution and how those experiences influenced their identity development. This was accomplished by conducting in-depth interviews and focus groups with 12 self-identified Cuban American women who were classified as sophomores, juniors, seniors, or graduate students. All of the participants had attended Florida International University for at least 1 year. The women had varying degrees of on and off campus academic and campus involvement activities. Participants were asked about six topics: (a) family, (b) cultural influences, (c) gender, (d) ethical and moral development, (e) education, and (f) ethnic identity. Based on the coding of the data provided by the participants, several interconnected themes emerged including the importance of family, familial support, cultural pride, expected gender roles, core values, decision making, biculturalism, and the value of attending a Hispanic Serving Institution. These themes were found to be all related to the identity development of the participants. It was found that looking at identity through a multidimensional lens is essential. Looking at personal growth and development through anthropological, sociological, and psychosocial lenses gave greater insight to a population of students who have been largely underrepresented in the literature. The findings of this case study are that culture is contextual and identity development is complex for first and second generation Cuban American women attending a Hispanic Serving Institution in a majority minority city. It was found that several factors, including the importance of family and gender roles, were not found to be more important than one another; rather they supported each other in regards to the participants' identity development. The notion of biculturalism as it has been presented in the literature was challenged in this study as it was found that the participants' experiences living and attending a school in a majority minority city presented a new way of understanding what it might mean to be bicultural. For professionals in the field, the findings of this study may lead to a broader understanding of nuances within the Hispanic community and a better understanding of the distinctiveness of what it means to be a Cuban American woman.