Beat deafness: développement d'un outil de dépistage et nouveaux cas.

Le terme beat deafness désigne une forme d’amusie congénitale spécifique à l’aspect temporel en musique qui a été découverte récemment par l’étude d’un cas unique (Phillips-Silver et al., 2011). L’objectif principal de ce mémoire était d’identifier de nouveaux cas. Nous avons évalué, chez 100 étudiants universitaires, les capacités à percevoir le beat à se synchroniser sur celui-ci. Les capacités de perception ont été évaluées au moyen de deux tests: un test de détection de perturbations rythmiques et un test de classification de courts extraits musicaux en marches et valses. Les capacités de synchronisation ont été évaluées au moyen d’une tâche consistant à taper du doigt sur les temps forts des mêmes marches et valses. Quatre personnes se sont démarquées du groupe par des difficultés de perception et de synchronisation, et sont dès lors considérées comme des nouveaux cas de beat deafness.

La lévodopa est-elle néfaste pour la cognition dans la maladie de Parkinson? : étude pilote

Introduction et objectifs : Alors que l'effet moteur de la lévodopa (L-dopa) dans la maladie de Parkinson (MP) est clair et établi, son effet sur la cognition demeure incertain. Les troubles cognitifs ont un impact important sur la qualité de vie et les études évaluant l'effet cognitif de ce médicament donnent des résultats encore divergents. L’objectif primaire de cette étude pilote est d’observer l’impact des doses cliniques de lévodopa sur la cognition. Un second objectif sera d'établir une courbe dose-réponse pour observer les différences potentielles. Méthodes : Cinq patients avec MP ont été évalués à l’aide de 2 tests cognitifs (CPT-II et Stroop) et 2 tests moteurs (Finger Tapping et UPDRS-III) en OFF (sevrage minimal de 12 heures) et en ON avec des doses croissantes de lévodopa (commençant à 50mg avec une augmentation de dose de 50mg par visite) jusqu’à l'observation d'une performance cognitive optimale ou d'effets secondaires. Une administration répétée des tests cognitifs a été faite à la première visite pour limiter l’effet d’apprentissage. Résultats : Le temps de réaction (RT) mesuré en millisecondes au CPT-II a augmenté (médiane 3.03%) après la prise de médicament alors que les erreurs ont légèrement diminué (médiane -9.92%). Au Stroop, l’effet d’interférence évalué selon les changements au temps d’inhibition mesuré en secondes était légèrement moindre sans changement dans les erreurs. Avec les doses prescrites, le RT a augmenté de 3,50% et le nombre d’erreurs est resté stable alors que les doses inférieures ont eu une moindre augmentation du RT tout en diminuant les erreurs. Dans le Stroop, les doses faibles ont amélioré le temps de près de 19% alors que les doses prescrites ont quant à elles diminué les erreurs. Malgré une certaine variabilité, la courbe dose-réponse indique que les erreurs diminuaient aux doses faibles et fortes dans le CPT-II alors que le RT augmentait généralement, ce qui pourrait indiquer un style de performance plus prudent. L’effet de la lévodopa sur l’interférence dans le Stroop variait légèrement sans tendances fixes mis à part le bénéfice observé par les doses faibles. Une importante variabilité a été observée dans les évaluations motrices entre les sujets ainsi qu'au sein du même sujet. Conclusion : Ces résultats indiquent qu’en général, le médicament ne semble pas avoir d’effet néfaste important sur l’attention et les fonctions exécutives évaluées auprès de ce groupe de patients parkinsoniens. L'effet cognitif des doses plus faibles semble leur être bénéfique et meilleur que les doses cliniquement prescrites. La relation dose-réponse démontre un effet cognitif variable de la lévodopa entre les doses, n'indiquant toutefois pas de tendances claires.

Estimulacion magnetica trascraneal en el desempeno motor en enfermedades del sistema nervioso central: Revision Sistematica

Introducción: El uso de la estimulación cerebral no invasiva en procesos de rehabilitación es de gran interés, por cuanto con mediación tecnológica se generan nuevas posibilidades de recuperación motora, a partir de la activación de la corteza cerebral. El objetivo del estudio es establecer la evidencia del uso terapéutico de la EMT, relacionado con el desempeño motor de pacientes con enfermedades del sistema nervioso central. Metodología: Se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura. Se incluyeron 10 estudios en el análisis cualitativo que incluyó la evaluación de calidad con la escala de Jadad y del riesgo de sesgo con la herramienta Cochrane. Fueron excluidos 1613 estudios. Se aplicó el protocolo del estudio para la extracción, revisión y validez de los estudios incluidos. Resultados: La evidencia disponible muestra resultados positivos del uso terapéutico de la EMT en el desempeño motor en aspectos como la aceleración, la fuerza de pinza y de agarre, la estabilidad y la fuerza muscular, así como una mejor velocidad de la marcha y una disminución en la frecuencia y severidad de los espasmos. Discusión: La EMT puede constituir una estrategia terapéutica para mejorar el desempeño motor en pacientes con ECV, Lesión Medular y enfermedad de Parkinson, que requiere más investigación por la heterogeneidad de los diseños y medidas de descenlace utilizados, así como por la alta variabilidad interindividual que hace complejo estandarizar los protocolos de su uso terapéutico.

Detection of neural correlates of self-paced motor activity using empirical mode decomposition phase locking analysis

Transient episodes of synchronisation of neuronal activity in particular frequency ranges are thought to underlie cognition. Empirical mode decomposition phase locking (EMDPL) analysis is a method for determining the frequency and timing of phase synchrony that is adaptive to intrinsic oscillations within data, alleviating the need for arbitrary bandpass filter cut-off selection. It is extended here to address the choice of reference electrode and removal of spurious synchrony resulting from volume conduction. Spline Laplacian transformation and independent component analysis (ICA) are performed as pre-processing steps, and preservation of phase synchrony between synthetic signals. combined using a simple forward model, is demonstrated. The method is contrasted with use of bandpass filtering following the same preprocessing steps, and filter cut-offs are shown to influence synchrony detection markedly. Furthermore, an approach to the assessment of multiple EEG trials using the method is introduced, and the assessment of statistical significance of phase locking episodes is extended to render it adaptive to local phase synchrony levels. EMDPL is validated in the analysis of real EEG data, during finger tapping. The time course of event-related (de)synchronisation (ERD/ERS) is shown to differ from that of longer range phase locking episodes, implying different roles for these different types of synchronisation. It is suggested that the increase in phase locking which occurs just prior to movement, coinciding with a reduction in power (or ERD) may result from selection of the neural assembly relevant to the particular movement. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

An item response analysis of the motor and behavioral subscales of the unified Huntington's disease rating scale in huntington disease gene expansion carriers

Although the Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale (UHDRS) is widely used in the assessment of Huntington disease (HD), the ability of individual items to discriminate individual differences in motor or behavioral manifestations has not been extensively studied in HD gene expansion carriers without a motor-defined clinical diagnosis (ie, prodromal-HD or prHD). To elucidate the relationship between scores on individual motor and behavioral UHDRS items and total score for each subscale, a nonparametric item response analysis was performed on retrospective data from 2 multicenter longitudinal studies. Motor and behavioral assessments were supplied for 737 prHD individuals with data from 2114 visits (PREDICT-HD) and 686 HD individuals with data from 1482 visits (REGISTRY). Option characteristic curves were generated for UHDRS subscale items in relation to their subscale score. In prHD, overall severity of motor signs was low, and participants had scores of 2 or above on very few items. In HD, motor items that assessed ocular pursuit, saccade initiation, finger tapping, tandem walking, and to a lesser extent, saccade velocity, dysarthria, tongue protrusion, pronation/supination, Luria, bradykinesia, choreas, gait, and balance on the retropulsion test were found to discriminate individual differences across a broad range of motor severity. In prHD, depressed mood, anxiety, and irritable behavior demonstrated good discriminative properties. In HD, depressed mood demonstrated a good relationship with the overall behavioral score. These data suggest that at least some UHDRS items appear to have utility across a broad range of severity, although many items demonstrate problematic features.

Movement intention detection from autocorrelation of EEG for BCI

Movement intention detection is important for development of intuitive movement based Brain Computer Interfaces (BCI). Various complex oscillatory processes are involved in producing voluntary movement intention. In this paper, temporal dynamics of electroencephalography (EEG) associated with movement intention and execution were studied using autocorrelation. It was observed that the trend of decay of autocorrelation of EEG changes before and during the voluntary movement. A novel feature for movement intention detection was developed based on relaxation time of autocorrelation obtained by fitting exponential decay curve to the autocorrelation. This new single trial feature was used to classify voluntary finger tapping trials from resting state trials with peak accuracy of 76.7%. The performance of autocorrelation analysis was compared with Motor-Related Cortical Potentials (MRCP).

First-principle data-driven models for assessment of motor disorders in Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an increasing neurological disorder in an aging society. The motor and non-motor symptoms of PD advance with the disease progression and occur in varying frequency and duration. In order to affirm the full extent of a patient’s condition, repeated assessments are necessary to adjust medical prescription. In clinical studies, symptoms are assessed using the unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale (UPDRS). On one hand, the subjective rating using UPDRS relies on clinical expertise. On the other hand, it requires the physical presence of patients in clinics which implies high logistical costs. Another limitation of clinical assessment is that the observation in hospital may not accurately represent a patient’s situation at home. For such reasons, the practical frequency of tracking PD symptoms may under-represent the true time scale of PD fluctuations and may result in an overall inaccurate assessment. Current technologies for at-home PD treatment are based on data-driven approaches for which the interpretation and reproduction of results are problematic.  The overall objective of this thesis is to develop and evaluate unobtrusive computer methods for enabling remote monitoring of patients with PD. It investigates first-principle data-driven model based novel signal and image processing techniques for extraction of clinically useful information from audio recordings of speech (in texts read aloud) and video recordings of gait and finger-tapping motor examinations. The aim is to map between PD symptoms severities estimated using novel computer methods and the clinical ratings based on UPDRS part-III (motor examination). A web-based test battery system consisting of self-assessment of symptoms and motor function tests was previously constructed for a touch screen mobile device. A comprehensive speech framework has been developed for this device to analyze text-dependent running speech by: (1) extracting novel signal features that are able to represent PD deficits in each individual component of the speech system, (2) mapping between clinical ratings and feature estimates of speech symptom severity, and (3) classifying between UPDRS part-III severity levels using speech features and statistical machine learning tools. A novel speech processing method called cepstral separation difference showed stronger ability to classify between speech symptom severities as compared to existing features of PD speech. In the case of finger tapping, the recorded videos of rapid finger tapping examination were processed using a novel computer-vision (CV) algorithm that extracts symptom information from video-based tapping signals using motion analysis of the index-finger which incorporates a face detection module for signal calibration. This algorithm was able to discriminate between UPDRS part III severity levels of finger tapping with high classification rates. Further analysis was performed on novel CV based gait features constructed using a standard human model to discriminate between a healthy gait and a Parkinsonian gait. The findings of this study suggest that the symptom severity levels in PD can be discriminated with high accuracies by involving a combination of first-principle (features) and data-driven (classification) approaches. The processing of audio and video recordings on one hand allows remote monitoring of speech, gait and finger-tapping examinations by the clinical staff. On the other hand, the first-principles approach eases the understanding of symptom estimates for clinicians. We have demonstrated that the selected features of speech, gait and finger tapping were able to discriminate between symptom severity levels, as well as, between healthy controls and PD patients with high classification rates. The findings support suitability of these methods to be used as decision support tools in the context of PD assessment.

Pseudonegligência, dominância manual e habilidades motoras em alunos das artes em comparação com alunos de outros cursos

Uma linha de pesquisa freqüente sobre a lateralização cerebral em artistas tem investigado o comportamento daqueles que sofrem de diversos síndromes neuropatológicas, afetando o hemisfério esquerdo ou direito. Em contraste, Bertrand (2001), observando que alguns poucos estudos reportaram um aumento na prevalência de canhotismo e ambidestrismo entre artistas, indicou a necessidade para a realização de pesquisas sistemáticas sobre as características laterais em artistas normais. Na ausência de tais estudos, e devido à dificuldade de obter dados de artistas profissionais, este projeto foi planejado com o fim de investigar em detalhe, assimetrias laterais na dominância manual, habilidade motora e atenção visuoespacial em alunos das artes e os de outros cursos (o grupo de controle). Estes alunos foram recrutados do Departamento de Artes da Universidade Federal de Maranhão e de um centro público de arte em São Luis. A amostra foi composta de 50 alunos de controle (24 destros e 26 canhotos), e 51 alunos das artes (27 destros e 24 canhotos). Dados foram obtidos para dominância manual, ocular e podálica, e para o desempenho em duas medidas de proficiência motora: batidas digitais e o Teste de Pinos na Forma de Chaves (o Grooved Pegboard). Além disso, uma versão do Teste Visual de Bisecçionar Linhas (TVBL) foi aplicado com o objetivo de comparar o grau de pseudonegligência dentro e entre alunos das artes e os de controle. Procurou-se averiguar se em relação aos alunos de controle, aqueles das artes mostrariam um grau reduzido de assimetria intermanual na dominância manual e nas habilidades motoras, bem como um nível maior de exatidão no TVBL. No que tange a presença de tais diferenças na performance, nossas predições foram apoiadas. Os alunos das artes, em particular, os canhotos, foram menos consistentes e mais ambidestros do que os alunos dos outros cursos. Eles também exibiram um nível menor de desempenho entre as mãos nos dois testes motores. Além do mais, enquanto que o grau de pseudonegligência foi elevado nos alunos de controle, as respostas dos alunos das artes foram mais exatas, resultando em um nível reduzido de erro em torno do ponto zero verídico. Em concordância com pesquisas prévias com músicos, em geral, os alunos das artes apresentaram um nível de atenção visuoespacial mais equilibrado, e estas diferenças foram relacionadas às exigências cognitivas implícitas no treino nas artes visuais.

Cognitive function in patients with chronic pain treated with opioids: characteristics and associated factors

Background The paucity of studies regarding cognitive function in patients with chronic pain, and growing evidence regarding the cognitive effects of pain and opioids on cognitive function prompted us to assess cognition via neuropsychological measurement in patients with chronic non-cancer pain treated with opioids. Methods In this cross-sectional study, 49 patients were assessed by Continuous Reaction Time, Finger Tapping, Digit Span, Trail Making Test-B and Mini-mental State Examination tests. Linear regressions were applied. Results Patients scored poorly in the Trail Making Test-B (mean?=?107.6?s, SD?=?61.0, cut-off?=?91?s); and adequately on all other tests. Several associations among independent variables and cognitive tests were observed. In the multiple regression analyses, the variables associated with statistically significant poor cognitive performance were female sex, higher age, lower annual income, lower schooling, anxiety, depression, tiredness, lower opioid dose, and more than 5?h of sleep the night before assessment (P?<?0.05). Conclusions Patients with chronic pain may have cognitive dysfunction related to some reversible factors, which can be optimized by therapeutic interventions.

L'influenza del sonno sull'andamento temporale della consolidazione delle abilità procedurali

Background: It is well known, since the pioneristic observation by Jenkins and Dallenbach (Am J Psychol 1924;35:605-12), that a period of sleep provides a specific advantage for the consolidation of newly acquired informations. Recent research about the possible enhancing effect of sleep on memory consolidation has focused on procedural memory (part of non-declarative memory system, according to Squire’s taxonomy), as it appears the memory sub-system for which the available data are more consistent. The acquisition of a procedural skill follows a typical time course, consisting in a substantial practice-dependent learning followed by a slow, off-line improvement. Sleep seems to play a critical role in promoting the process of slow learning, by consolidating memory traces and making them more stable and resistant to interferences. If sleep is critical for the consolidation of a procedural skill, then an alteration of the organization of sleep should result in a less effective consolidation, and therefore in a reduced memory performance. Such alteration can be experimentally induced, as in a deprivation protocol, or it can be naturally observed in some sleep disorders as, for example, in narcolepsy. In this research, a group of narcoleptic patients, and a group of matched healthy controls, were tested in two different procedural abilities, in order to better define the size and time course of sleep contribution to memory consolidation. Experimental Procedure: A Texture Discrimination Task (Karni & Sagi, Nature 1993;365:250-2) and a Finger Tapping Task (Walker et al., Neuron 2002;35:205-11) were administered to two indipendent samples of drug-naive patients with first-diagnosed narcolepsy with cataplexy (International Classification of Sleep Disorder 2nd ed., 2005), and two samples of matched healthy controls. In the Texture Discrimination task, subjects (n=22) had to learn to recognize a complex visual array on the screen of a personal computer, while in the Finger Tapping task (n=14) they had to press a numeric sequence on a standard keyboard, as quickly and accurately as possible. Three subsequent experimental sessions were scheduled for each partecipant, namely a training session, a first retrieval session the next day, and a second retrieval session one week later. To test for possible circadian effects on learning, half of the subjects performed the training session at 11 a.m. and half at 17 p.m. Performance at training session was taken as a measure of the practice-dependent learning, while performance of subsequent sessions were taken as a measure of the consolidation level achieved respectively after one and seven nights of sleep. Between training and first retrieval session, all participants spent a night in a sleep laboratory and underwent a polygraphic recording. Results and Discussion: In both experimental tasks, while healthy controls improved their performance after one night of undisturbed sleep, narcoleptic patients showed a non statistically significant learning. Despite this, at the second retrieval session either healthy controls and narcoleptics improved their skills. Narcoleptics improved relatively more than controls between first and second retrieval session in the texture discrimination ability, while their performance remained largely lower in the motor (FTT) ability. Sleep parameters showed a grater fragmentation in the sleep of the pathological group, and a different distribution of Stage 1 and 2 NREM sleep in the two groups, being thus consistent with the hypothesis of a lower consolidation power of sleep in narcoleptic patients. Moreover, REM density of the first part of the night of healthy subjects showed a significant correlation with the amount of improvement achieved at the first retrieval session in TDT task, supporting the hypothesis that REM sleep plays an important role in the consolidation of visuo-perceptual skills. Taken together, these results speak in favor of a slower, rather than lower consolidation of procedural skills in narcoleptic patients. Finally, an explanation of the results, based on the possible role of sleep in contrasting the interference provided by task repetition is proposed.

Ecological validity of virtual reality daily living activities screening for early dementia: longitudinal study

Background: Dementia is a multifaceted disorder that impairs cognitive functions, such as memory, language, and executive functions necessary to plan, organize, and prioritize tasks required for goal-directed behaviors. In most cases, individuals with dementia experience difficulties interacting with physical and social environments. The purpose of this study was to establish ecological validity and initial construct validity of a fire evacuation Virtual Reality Day-Out Task (VR-DOT) environment based on performance profiles as a screening tool for early dementia. Objective: The objectives were (1) to examine the relationships among the performances of 3 groups of participants in the VR-DOT and traditional neuropsychological tests employed to assess executive functions, and (2) to compare the performance of participants with mild Alzheimer’s-type dementia (AD) to those with amnestic single-domain mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and healthy controls in the VR-DOT and traditional neuropsychological tests used to assess executive functions. We hypothesized that the 2 cognitively impaired groups would have distinct performance profiles and show significantly impaired independent functioning in ADL compared to the healthy controls. Methods: The study population included 3 groups: 72 healthy control elderly participants, 65 amnestic MCI participants, and 68 mild AD participants. A natural user interface framework based on a fire evacuation VR-DOT environment was used for assessing physical and cognitive abilities of seniors over 3 years. VR-DOT focuses on the subtle errors and patterns in performing everyday activities and has the advantage of not depending on a subjective rating of an individual person. We further assessed functional capacity by both neuropsychological tests (including measures of attention, memory, working memory, executive functions, language, and depression). We also evaluated performance in finger tapping, grip strength, stride length, gait speed, and chair stands separately and while performing VR-DOTs in order to correlate performance in these measures with VR-DOTs because performance while navigating a virtual environment is a valid and reliable indicator of cognitive decline in elderly persons. Results: The mild AD group was more impaired than the amnestic MCI group, and both were more impaired than healthy controls. The novel VR-DOT functional index correlated strongly with standard cognitive and functional measurements, such as mini-mental state examination (MMSE; rho=0.26, P=.01) and Bristol Activities of Daily Living (ADL) scale scores (rho=0.32, P=.001). Conclusions: Functional impairment is a defining characteristic of predementia and is partly dependent on the degree of cognitive impairment. The novel virtual reality measures of functional ability seem more sensitive to functional impairment than qualitative measures in predementia, thus accurately differentiating from healthy controls. We conclude that VR-DOT is an effective tool for discriminating predementia and mild AD from controls by detecting differences in terms of errors, omissions, and perseverations while measuring ADL functional ability.

Practice in lucid dreams enhances performance during wakefulness

Motor practice in lucid dreams is a form of mental rehearsal where the dreamer can con-sciously rehearse motor skills in the dream state while being physically asleep (Erlacher, Stumbrys & Schredl, 2011). A previous pilot study showed that practice in lucid dreams can improve subsequent performance (Erlacher & Schredl, 2010). This study aimed to replicated those findings with a different (serial reaction) task (finger-tapping; e.g. Walker et al., 2002) and compare the effectiveness of lucid dream practice not only to physical but also to mental practice in wakefulness.

Three-dimensional functional magnetic resonance imaging of human brain on a clinical 1.5-T scanner.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a tool for mapping brain function that utilizes neuronal activity-induced changes in blood oxygenation. An efficient three-dimensional fMRI method is presented for imaging brain activity on conventional, widely available, 1.5-T scanners, without additional hardware. This approach uses large magnetic susceptibility weighting based on the echo-shifting principle combined with multiple gradient echoes per excitation. Motor stimulation, induced by self-paced finger tapping, reliably produced significant signal increase in the hand region of the contralateral primary motor cortex in every subject tested.

Hierarchical organisation of neuro-anatomical constraints in interlimb coordination

Based on the observation that bimanual finger tapping movements tend toward mirror symmetry with respect to the body midline, despite the synchronous activation of non-homologous muscles, F. Mechsner, D. Kerzel, G. Knoblich, and W. Prinz (2001) [Perceptual basis of bimanual coordination. Nature, 414, 69-73] suggested that the basis of rhythmic coordination is purely spatial/perceptual in nature, and independent of the neuro-anatomical constraints of the motor system. To investigate this issue further, we employed a four finger tapping task similar to that used by F. Mechsner and G. Knoblich (2004) [Do muscle matter in bimanual coordination? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 30, 490-503] in which six male participants were required to alternately tap combinations of adjacent pairs of index (1), middle (M) and ring (R) fingers of each hand in time with an auditory metronome. The metronome pace increased continuously from 1 Hz to 3 Hz over the course of a 30-s trial. Each participant performed three blocks of trials in which finger combination for each hand (IM or MR) and mode of coordination (mirror or parallel) were presented in random order. Within each block, the right hand was placed in one of three orientations; prone, neutral and supine. The order of blocks was counterbalanced across the six participants. The left hand maintained a prone position throughout the experiment. On the basis of discrete relative phase analyses between synchronised taps, the time at which the initial mode of coordination was lost was determined for each trial. When the right hand was prone, transitions occurred only from parallel symmetry to mirror symmetry, regardless of finger combination. In contrast, when the right hand was supine, transitions occurred only from mirror symmetry to parallel but no transitions were observed in the opposite direction. In the right hand neutral condition, mirror and parallel symmetry are insufficient to describe the modes of coordination since the hands are oriented orthogonally. When defined anatomically, however, the results in each of the three right hand orientations are consistent. That is, synchronisation of finger tapping is deter-mined by a hierarchy of control of individual fingers based on their intrinsic neuro-mechanical properties rather than on the basis of their spatial orientation. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Interval timing in children:effects of auditory and visual pacing stimuli and relationships with reading and attention variables

Motor timing tasks have been employed in studies of neurodevelopmental disorders such as developmental dyslexia and ADHD, where they provide an index of temporal processing ability. Investigations of these disorders have used different stimulus parameters within the motor timing tasks which are likely to affect performance measures. Here we assessed the effect of auditory and visual pacing stimuli on synchronised motor timing performance and its relationship with cognitive and behavioural predictors that are commonly used in the diagnosis of these highly prevalent developmental disorders. Twenty- one children (mean age 9.6 years) completed a finger tapping task in two stimulus conditions, together with additional psychometric measures. As anticipated, synchronisation to the beat (ISI 329 ms) was less accurate in the visually paced condition. Decomposition of timing variance indicated that this effect resulted from differences in the way that visual and auditory paced tasks are processed by central timekeeping and associated peripheral implementation systems. The ability to utilise an efficient processing strategy on the visual task correlated with both reading and sustained attention skills. Dissociations between these patterns of relationship across task modality suggest that not all timing tasks are equivalent.