Farelo de glúten de milho 21 na alimentação de cães adultos

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Resíduo de abacaxi em programa de restrição alimentar qualitativa para suínos pesados

Pós-graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia Animal - FEIS

Fibra para cães: efeitos sobre o processo de extrusão, digestibilidade, fermentação microbiana, tempo de retenção intestinal e palatabilidade de rações para cães

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Identification of the method to quantify soluble fibre and the effect of the source of fibre on the ileal and faecal digestibility of soluble and insoluble fibre in rabbits = Identificación del método para cuantificar la fibra soluble y el efecto de la fuente de fibra en la digestibilidad ileal y fecal de la fibra soluble e insoluble en conejos

La presente tesis constituye un avance en el estudio de los métodos para cuantificar la fibra soluble y los efectos de las fracciones de fibra y las fuentes de fibra sobre la digestión de las diferentes fracciones de fibra (soluble e insoluble) en el conejo. Hay un efecto positivo de la fibra soluble sobre la salud intestinal de los conejos y, por ende, una reducción de la mortalidad en animales destetados. Pese a esto, no está claro si estos efectos se deben específicamente a la fracción soluble. Por lo que los objetivos generales de esta tesis fueron: 1) comparar diferentes metodologías químicas e in vitro para cuantificar la fibra soluble y estudiar las posibles interferencias en la cuantificación de la fibra soluble por las mucinas, y viceversa, 2) determinar los efectos de la fibra, el lugar de fermentación, el método para valorar la fibra soluble e insoluble, y la corrección de la fibra soluble por el contenido intestinal de mucinas sobre la digestibilidad de las distintas fracciones de la fibra y 3) evaluar los efectos individuales de las fracciones soluble e insoluble de la fibra de pulpa de remolacha y de manzana, sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra soluble e insoluble y los parámetros digestivos. Para ello se llevaron a cabo 4 estudios. En el primer estudio se compararon diferentes metodologías químicas e in vitro para valorar la fibra soluble de diferentes alimentos y se estudió la posible interferencia en la determinación de la fibra soluble y mucinas. Para ello se utilizaron seis ingredientes (pulpa de remolacha, pectinas de pulpa de remolacha, pulpa de remolacha lavada, paja de cereal, cascarilla de girasol y lignocelulosa) y siete piensos de conejos con diferentes niveles de fibra soluble. En un primer experimento se analizó la fibra dietética total (FDT), la fibra dietética insoluble (FDI), la fibra dietética soluble (FDS), la fibra neutro detergente corregida por cenizas y proteínas (aFNDmo-pb), y la digestibilidad in vitro 2 pasos pepsina/pancreatina (residuo corregido por cenizas y proteína, ivMSi2) de los ingredientes y piensos. Además la fibra soluble se calculó mediante la diferencia entre FDT-FDI (FDSFDI), FDT- ivMSi2 (FDSivMSi2), y FDT - aFNDmo-pb (FDSaFNDmo-pb). Cuando la fibra soluble se determinó directamente como FDS o se calculó como FDT-FDI no se observaron diferencias (109 g/kg MS, en promedio). Sin embargo, cuando la fibra soluble se calculó como FDT - aFNDmo-pb su valor fue un 40% menor (153 g/kg MS. P < 0,05), mientras que la FDSFDI (124 g/kg MS) no fue diferente a ninguna de las otras metodologías. La correlación entre los tres métodos fue elevada (r > 0,96. P < 0,001. n = 13), pero disminuyó o incluso desapareció cuando la pulpa o las pectinas de la remolacha fueron excluidas del análisis. En un segundo experimento, se comparó el método ivDMi2 usando crisoles (método de referencia) con una modificación del mismo usando bolsas ANKOM digeridas individualmente o en colectivo para simplificar la determinación de la FDSivMSi2. La FDSivMSi2 no difirió entre los métodos comparados. En un tercer experimento, se analizó la posible interferencia entre la determinación de la fibra soluble y las mucinas intestinales. Se observó un contenido de FDT y de mucinas elevado en las muestras de pectinas de remolacha (994 y 709 g/kg MS), así como en el moco intestinal de conejo (571 y 739 g/kg MS) cuando se aplicó el método de mucinas por precipitación con etanol. Sin embargo, después de aplicar una pectinasa en el material precipitado, la cantidad de mucinas recuperadas en las muestras de pectinas de remolacha fue cercana a cero, mientras que en el moco intestinal fue similar a los resultados previos al uso de la enzima. Con los resultados de este ensayo se estimaron los carbohidratos de mucinas retenidos en los contenidos digestivos y se propuso una corrección para la determinación de la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble. En conclusión, la contaminación de las mucinas de la digesta con fibra soluble se soluciona usando pectinasas. El segundo estudio se centró en estudiar: 1) el efecto del tipo de fibra, 2) el sitio de fermentación, 3) el método para cuantificar fibra y 4) la corrección por mucinas sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra. Para ello se formularon tres piensos con diferentes niveles de fibra soluble (FDT-aFNDmo-pb). Un pienso bajo en fibra soluble (LSF. 85 g/kg DM), un pienso medio en fibra soluble (MSF. 102 g/kg DM), y un pienso alto en fibra soluble (HSF. 145 g/kg DM). Estos piensos se obtuvieron reemplazando un 50% del heno del alfalfa en el pienso MSF por una mezcla de pulpa de manzana y remolacha (HSF) o por una mezcla de cascarilla de avena y proteína de soja (LSF). Se utilizaron 30 conejas canuladas para determinar la digestibilidad ileal y fecal. La digestibilidad cecal se calculó mediante diferencia entre la digestibilidad fecal e ileal. La fibra insoluble se determinó como aFNDmo-pb, IDF, e ivMSi2, mientras que la fibra soluble se calculó como FDSFDI, FDSaFNDmo-pb, y FDSivMSi2. La digestibilidad de la FDT y la fibra soluble se corrigieron por las mucinas. La concentración de mucinas en la digesta ileal y fecal, aumento desde el grupo LSF hasta el grupo con el pienso HSF (P < 0,01). La corrección por mucinas aumentó las digestibilidades de la FDT y la fibra soluble a nivel ileal, mientras que a nivel cecal las redujo. (P < 0.01). El coeficiente de digestibilidad ileal de FDT aumentó desde el grupo LSF al grupo HSF (0,12 vs. 0,281. P < 0,01), sin diferencias en el coeficiente de digestibilidad cecal (0,264), por lo que la tendencia a nivel fecal entre los grupos se mantuvo. El coeficiente de digestibilidad ileal de la fibra insoluble aumento desde el grupo con el pienso LSF al grupo con el pienso HSF (0,113 vs. 0,210. P < 0,01), sin diferencias a nivel cecal (0,139) y sin efecto del método usado, resultando en una digestibilidad elevada a nivel fecal, con tendencias similares a las observadas a nivel ileal. El coeficiente de digestibilidad de la FND fue elevada en comparación con la FDI o la ivMSi2 (P > 0.01). El coeficiente de la digestibilidad ileal de la fibra soluble fue mayor en el grupo LSF respecto al grupo LSF (0,436 vs. 0,145. P < 0,01) y el método no afectó a esta determinación. El coeficiente de la digestibilidad cecal de la fibra soluble se redujo desde el grupo LSF hasta el grupo HSF (0,721 vs. 0,492. P < 0,05). El valor más bajo de digestibilidad cecal y fecal de fibra soluble fue medido con el método FDSaFNDmo-pb (P < 0,01). Se observó una alta correlación entre las digestibilidades de la fibra soluble determinada como FDSFDI, FDSaFNDmo-pb, y FDSivMSi2, por lo tanto la información proporcionada por una u otra metodología fueron similares. Sin embargo, cuando se compararon con efectos fisiológicos (producción de mucinas y peso del ciego y pH del ciego de un trabajo previo), la FDSaFNDmo-pb globalmente mostró estar mejor correlacionado con estos parámetros fisiológicos. En conclusión, la corrección por mucinas es necesaria para determinar la digestibilidad ileal de la FDT y fibra soluble, mientras que la elección de uno u otro método es menos relevante. La inclusión de pulpa de manzana y remolacha incrementa la cantidad de FDT que desaparece antes de llegar al ciego. En el tercer estudio se estudió el efecto de la fracción fibrosa soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha y el método de cuantificación de la fibra soluble e insoluble sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra y algunos parámetros digestivos. Para ello se formularon cuatro piensos con niveles similares de fibra insoluble (315g aFNDmo-pb/kg MS) y proteína (167 g/kg MS). El pienso control contuvo el nivel más bajo de fibra soluble (30,3 g/kg, con cascarilla de girasol y paja como fuente de fibra). Un segundo pienso se obtuvo mediante la sustitución de 60 g de almidón/kg del pienso control por pectinas de remolacha (82,9 g fibra soluble/kg MS). Los otras dos piensos resultaron de la sustitución parcial de las fuentes de fibra del pienso control por la fracción insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha y la pulpa de remolacha entera (42.2 y 82.3 g fibra soluble/kg MS, respectivamente). Cincuenta y seis conejos en cebo (14/pienso), de 2,4  0.21 kg de peso, fueron usados para determinar la digestibilidad ileal y fecal de la FDT, FDI, aFNDmo-pb, FDSFDI, y FDSaFNDmo-pb. La concentración de mucinas en el íleon y heces se utilizaron para corregir la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble. También se midió el peso de diferentes segmentos del tracto digestivo y el pH del contenido digestivo. Los conejos alimentados con el pienso de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostraron los consumos más bajos con respecto a los demás grupos (124 vs. 139 g/d, respectivamente. P < 0,05). El flujo de mucinas ileales fue más alto (P < 0.05) en el grupo alimentado con el pienso de pectinas de remolacha (9,0 g/d en promedio) que los del grupo control (4,79 g/d), mostrando los otros dos grupos valores intermedios, sin detectarse diferencias a nivel fecal. La digestibilidad ileal de la FDT (corregida por mucinas) y la fibra insoluble no se vieron afectadas por el tipo de pienso. El método usado para determinar la fibra insoluble afectó su digestibilidad ileal (0,123 para FDI vs. 0,108 para aFNDmo-pb. P < 0.01). De todas formas, los métodos no afectaron al cálculo de la fibra fermentada antes del ciego (4,9 g/d en promedio). Los conejos alimentados con el pienso de pulpa de remolacha y con el pienso con la fracción insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha mostraron las digestibilidades fecales más altas de la fibra insoluble (0,266 en promedio vs. 0,106 del grupo control), mientras que en los animales del pienso con pectinas esta digestibilidad fue un 47% mayor respecto al pienso control (P < 0,001). La digestibilidad fecal de la fibra insoluble fue un 20% más alta cuando se usó la FND en lugar de FDI para determinarla (P < 0.001). Esto hizo variar la cantidad de fibra insoluble fermentada a lo largo del tracto digestivo (9,5 ó 7,5 g/d cuando fue calculada como FDI o aFNDmo-pb, respectivamente. P < 0,001). Las digestibilidades ileales de la fibra soluble fueron positivas cuando los análisis de fibra soluble de los contenidos ileales fueron corregidos por mucinas, (P < 0,001) excepto para la digestibilidad ileal de la FDSIDF del grupo control. Una vez corregidas por mucinas, los conejos alimentados con los piensos que contuvieron la fracción soluble de la pulpa de remolacha (pienso de pectina y pulpa de remolacha) mostraron una mayor digestibilidad ileal de la fibra soluble, respecto al grupo control (0,483 vs. -0,010. P = 0.002), mientras que el grupo del pienso de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostró un valor intermedio (0,274). La digestibilidad total de la fibra soluble fue similar entre todos los grupos (0.93). Los conejos alimentados con pulpa de remolacha y su fracción insoluble mostraron los pesos relativos más altos del estómago respecto a los del pienso control y de pectinas (11 y 56 % respectivamente; P < 0,05). Por otra parte, el peso relativo del ciego aumentó en los animales que consumieron tanto la fracción soluble como insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha, siendo un 16% más pesados (P < 0,001) que el grupo control. El pH del contenido cecal fue más bajo en los animales del grupo de pulpa de remolacha que en los del grupo control (5,64 vs. 6,03; P < 0,001), mientras que los del grupo de pectinas y de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostraron valores intermedios. En conclusión, el efecto positivo de la pulpa de remolacha en el flujo de mucinas a nivel ileal se debe a la fracción soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha. La mitad de la fibra soluble de la pulpa de remolacha desaparece antes de llegar al ciego, independientemente si esta proviene de pectinas puras o de la pulpa de remolacha. El pH cecal esta mejor correlacionado con la cantidad de FDT que desaparece antes del ciego más que con la que se degrada en el ciego. En el último estudio se estudiaron los efectos de la fibra soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de manzana sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra y algunos parámetros digestivos. Cuatro dietas fueron formuladas con niveles similares de fibra insoluble (aFNDmo-pb 32,4%) y proteína (18,6% ambos en base seca). El pienso control contuvo el nivel más bajo de fibra soluble (46 g de fibra soluble/kg, con cascarilla de girasol y paja de cereales como la fuentes de fibra). Un segundo pienso fue obtenido mediante la sustitución de 60 g de almidón/kg del pienso control por pectinas de manzana (105 g fibra soluble/kg). Los otros dos piensos se obtuvieron por la substitución de parte de las fuentes de fibra del pienso control por pulpa de manzana o pulpa de manzana despectinizada (93 y 71 g de fibra soluble/kg, respectivamente). La digestibilidad fecal fue determinada en 23 conejos/pienso con 1.68 ± 0.23 kg de peso vivo, los cuales fueron sacrificados a los 60 d edad para recolectar su contenido digestivo para determinar digestibilidad ileal y otros parámetros digestivos. La fibra soluble de manzana (pectinas y pulpa entera) estimuló el flujo ileal de mucinas (P = 0,002), pero no asi la pulpa despectinizada. La corrección por mucinas incrementó la digestibilidad de la FDT y la fibra soluble a nivel fecal, y especialmente a nivel ileal. Cerca de la mitad de la fibra soluble proveniente de los piensos con cualquiera de las fracciones de la pulpa de manzana fue degradada a nivel ileal, sin mostrar diferencias entre los grupos (46 y 86% en promedio a nivel ileal y fecal respectivamente). La inclusión de pulpa despectinizada de manzana mejoró la digestibilidad de la FND a nivel fecal (P < 0,05) pero no a nivel ileal. El contenido cecal de los conejos alimentados con la pulpa de manzana tuvieron el pH cecal más ácido que los del pienso control (5,55 vs. 5,95. P < 0,001), mientras que los animales con el pienso de pectinas de manzana y de pulpa de manzana despectinizada mostraron valores intermedios. En conclusión los efectos positivo de la pulpa de manzana en el flujo de mucinas se debió principalmente a la fracción soluble de la pulpa de manzana. La mitad de la fibra soluble fue degradada antes del ciego independientemente de si esta provino de las pectinas o de la pulpa de manzana. El pH cecal estuvo mejor correlacionado con la cantidad de FDT fermentada en todo el tracto digestivo y antes de llegar al ciego que con la que se degradó en el ciego. Al integrar los resultados de los estudio 2, 3 y 4 se concluyó que la corrección de mucinas de los contenidos digestivos al determinar FDT y fibra soluble es necesaria para ajustar los cálculos de su digestibilidad. Esta corrección es mucho más importante a nivel ileal y en dietas bajas en fibra soluble. Por otra parte, la FDT desapareció en proporciones importantes antes de llegar al ciego, especialmente en piensos que contienen pulpa de remolacha o de manzana o alguna fracción soluble o insoluble de las mismas y estas diferencias observadas entre los piensos a nivel ileal se correlacionaron mejor con el pH cecal, lo que indicaría que la FDT se solubilizó antes de llegar al ciego y una vez en esté fermentó. Estos resultados implican que determinar la fibra soluble como FDSaFNDmo-pb es la mejor opción y que en la determinación de la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble se debe considerar la corrección por mucinas especialmente a nivel ileal y en piensos bajos en fibra soluble. ABSTRACT The present thesis constitutes a step forward in advancing the knowledge of the methods to quantify soluble fibre and the effects of the fibre fractions and source of fibre on the site the digestion of different fractions of fibre (soluble and insoluble) in the rabbit. There is a positive effect of soluble fibre on rabbit digestive health and therefore on the reduction of mortality in weaning rabbits. Nevertheless, it is no so clear that the effects of soluble fibre on rabbits are due particularly to this fraction. This thesis aims: 1) to compare the quantification of soluble fibre in feeds using different chemical and in vitro approaches, and to study the potential interference between soluble fibre and mucin determinations, 2) to identify the effects of type of fibre, site of fermentation, method to quantify insoluble and soluble fibre, and correction of the intestinal soluble fibre content for intestinal mucin on the digestibility of fibre fractions and 3) to evaluate the individual effect of soluble and insoluble fibre from sugar beet pulp and apple pulp on ileal and faecal soluble and insoluble digestibility and digestive traits. These objectives were developed in four studies: The first study compared the quantification of soluble fibre in feeds using different chemical and in vitro approaches, and studied the potential interference between soluble fibre and mucin determinations. Six ingredients, sugar beet pulp (SBP), SBP pectins, insoluble SBP, wheat straw, sunflower hulls and lignocellulose, and seven rabbit diets, differing in soluble fibre content, were evaluated. In experiment 1, ingredients and diets were analysed for total dietary fibre (TDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), soluble dietary fibre (SDF), aNDFom (corrected for protein, aNDFom-cp) and 2-step pepsin/pancreatin in vitro DM indigestibility (corrected for ash and protein, ivDMi2). Soluble fibre was estimated by difference using three procedures: TDF - IDF (SDFIDF), TDF - ivDMi2 (SDFivDMi2), and TDF - aNDFom-cp (SDFaNDFom-cp). Soluble fibre determined directly (SDF) or by difference, as SDFivDMi2 were not different (109 g/kg DM, on average). However, when it was calculated as SDFaNDFom-cp the value was 40% higher (153 g/kg DM, P < 0.05), whereas SDFIDF (124 g/kg DM) did not differ from any of the other methods. The correlation between the four methods was high (r ≥ 0.96. P ≤ 0.001. n = 13), but it decreased or even disappeared when SBP pectins and SBP were excluded and a lower and more narrow range of variation of soluble fibre was used. In experiment 2, the ivDMi2 using crucibles (reference method) were compared to those made using individual or collective ankom bags in order to simplify the determination of SDFivDMi2. The ivDMi2 was not different when using crucibles or individual or collective ankom bags. In experiment 3, the potential interference between soluble fibre and intestinal mucin determinations was studied using rabbit intestinal raw mucus, digesta and SBP pectins, lignocelluloses and a rabbit diet. An interference was observed between the determinations of soluble fibre and crude mucin, as the content of TDF and apparent crude mucin were high in SBP pectins (994 and 709 g/kg DM) and rabbit intestinal raw mucus (571 and 739 g/kg DM). After a pectinase treatment, the coefficient of apparent mucin recovery of SBP pectins was close to zero, whereas that of rabbit mucus was not modified. An estimation of the crude mucin carbohydrates retained in digesta TDF is proposed to correct TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. In conclusion, the values of soluble fibre depend on the methodology used. The contamination of crude mucin with soluble fibre is avoided using pectinase. The second study focused on the effect of type of fibre, site of fermentation, method for quantifying insoluble and soluble dietary fibre, and their correction for intestinal mucin on fibre digestibility. Three diets differing in soluble fibre were formulated (85 g/kg DM soluble fibre, in the low soluble fibre [LSF] diet; 102 g/kg DM in the medium soluble fibre [MSF] diet; and 145 g/kg DM in the high soluble fibre [HSF] diet). They were obtained by replacing half of the dehydrated alfalfa in the MSF diet with a mixture of beet and apple pulp (HSF diet) or with a mix of oat hulls and soybean protein (LSF diet). Thirty rabbits with ileal T-cannulas were used to determine total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) and ileal apparent digestibility (CIAD). Caecal digestibility was determined by difference between CTTAD and CIAD. Insoluble fibre was measured as aNDFom-cp, IDF, and ivDMi2, whereas soluble fibre was calculated as SDFaNDFom-cp, SDFIDF, SDFivDMi2. The intestinal mucin content was used to correct the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. Ileal and faecal concentration of mucin increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). Once corrected for intestinal mucin, The CTTAD and CIAD of TDF and soluble fibre increased whereas caecal digestibility decreased (P < 0.01). The CIAD of TDF increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.12 vs. 0.281. P < 0.01), with no difference in the caecal digestibility (0.264), resulting in a higher CTTAD from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). The CIAD of insoluble fibre increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.113 vs. 0.21. P < 0.01), with no difference in the caecal digestibility (0.139) and no effect of fibre method, resulting in a higher CTTAD for rabbits fed the HSF diet compared with the MSF and LSF diets groups (P < 0.01). The CTTAD of aNDFom-cp was higher compared with IDF or ivDMi2 (P < 0.01). The CIAD of soluble fibre was higher for the HSF than for the LSF diet group (0.436 vs. 0.145. P < 0.01) and fibre method did not affect it. Caecal soluble fibre digestibility decreased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.721 vs. 0.492. P < 0.05). The lowest caecal and faecal soluble fibre digestibility was measured using SDFaNDFom-cp (P < 0.01). There was a high correlation among the digestibilities of soluble fibre measured as SDFaNDFom-cp, SDFIDF, and SDFivDMi2. Therefore, these methodologies provide similar information. However, the method that seems to be globally better related to the physiological traits (ileal flow of mucins, and relative weight of the caecum and caecal pH from previous work) was the SDFaNDFom-cp. In conclusion, a correction for intestinal mucin is necessary for ileal TDF and soluble fibre digestibility whereas the selection of the fibre method has a minor relevance. The inclusion of sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF fermented in the small intestine. The third study examined the effect of fibre fractions of sugar beet pulp (SBP) and the method for quantifying soluble and insoluble fibre on soluble and insoluble fibre digestibility and digestive traits. Four diets were formulated with similar level of insoluble fibre (aNDFom-cp: 315 g/kg DM) and protein (167 g/kg DM). Control diet contained the lowest level of soluble fibre (30.3 g/kg DM, including sunflower hulls and straw as sole sources of fibre). A second diet was obtained by replacing 60 g starch/kg of control diet with SBP pectins (82.9 g soluble fibre/kg DM). Two more diets were obtained by replacing part of the fibrous sources of the control diet with either insoluble SBP fibre or SBP (42.2 and 82.3 g soluble fibre/kg DM, respectively). Fifty six (14/diet) rabbits weighing 2.40  0.213 kg were used to determine faecal and ileal digestibility of total dietary fibre (TDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), neutral detergent fibre corrected for ash and CP (aNDFom-cp) and soluble fibre estimated as SDFaNDFom-cp and SDFIDF. Faecal and ileal mucin content was used to correct TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. It was also recorded weight of digestive segments and digesta pH. Rabbits fed insoluble SBP showed the lowest feed intake with respect to the other 3 diets (124 vs. 139 g/d, respectively. P < 0.05). Ileal mucin flow was higher (P < 0.05) in animals fed pectin and SBP diets (9.0 g/d, as average) than those fed control diet (4.79 g/d), showing InsSBP group an intermediate value. No differences on mucin content were detected at faecal level. There was no diet effect on the CIAD of TDF (corrected for mucin) and insoluble fibre. Fibre methodology influenced the CIAD of insoluble fibre (0.123 for IDF vs. 0.108 for aNDFom-cp. P < 0.01). Anyway, the amount of insoluble fibre fermented before the caecum did not differ between both methods (4.9 g/d, on average). Rabbits fed insoluble SBP and SBP diets showed the highest CTTAD of insoluble fibre (0.266 on average vs. 0.106 for control group), whereas those fed pectin diet had an intermediate value (0.106. P < 0.001). The CTTAD of insoluble fibre measured with IDF was higher than that measured with aNDFom-cp (by 20%. P < 0.001). It led that the amount of insoluble fibre fermented along the digestive tract were different (9.5 or 7.5 g/d when calculated as IDF or aNDFom-cp, respectively; P < 0.001). When the CIAD of soluble fibre was corrected for mucin they became positive (P < 0.001) except for control group measured as SDFIDF. Once corrected for mucin content, rabbits fed soluble fibre from SBP (pectin and SBP groups) showed higher CIAD of soluble fibre than control group (0.483 vs. -0.019. respectively), whereas the value for insoluble SBP group was intermediate 0.274. The CTTAD of soluble fibre (mucin corrected) was similar among diets 0.93. Rabbits fed with SBP and insoluble SBP diets showed higher total digestive tract and stomach relative weight than those fed pectin and control diets (by 11 and 56 %. respectively, P < 0.05). The caecal relative weight did not differ in rabbits fed pectin, insoluble SBP, and SBP diets (62 g/kg BW, as average) and they were on average 16% higher (P < 0.001) than in control group. Caecal content of rabbits fed SBP diet was more acid than those fed control diet (5.64 vs. 6.03. P < 0.001), whereas those from pectin and insoluble SBP diets showed intermediate values. In conclusion, the positive effect of SBP fibre on ileal mucin flow was due to both its soluble and insoluble fibre fraction. Half of the soluble SBP fibre was degraded before the caecum independently it came from pectin or SBP. The caecal pH correlated better with the ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. The last study examined the effect of soluble and insoluble fibre of apple pulp on fibre digestibility and digestive traits. Four diets were formulated with similar level of insoluble fibre (aNDFom-cp: 324 g/kg DM) and protein (18.6 g/kg DM). Control diet contained the lowest level of soluble fibre (46 g soluble fibre/kg DM, including oat hulls and straw as sole sources of fibre). A second diet was obtained by replacing 60 g starch/kg of control diet with apple pectins (105 g soluble fibre/kg DM). Two more diets were obtained by substituting part of the fibrous sources of the control diet by either apple pulp or depectinized apple pulp (93 and 71 g soluble fibre/kg, respectively). The CTTAD was determined in 23 rabbits/diet weighing 1.68  0.23 kg BW, and 23 rabbits/diet were slaughtered at 60 d of age to collect ileal digesta to determine CIAD and record other digestive traits. Soluble fibre from apple stimulated ileal flow of mucin (P = 0.002), but depectinized apple pulp did not. The correction for mucin increased the digestibility of crude protein, total dietary fibre, and soluble fibre at faecal, but especially at ileal level, depending in this case on the diet. Around half of the soluble fibre in diets containing any fibre fraction from apple was degraded at ileal level, with no differences among these diets (0.46 vs. 0.066 for control group, P=0.046). Faecal soluble fibre digestibility was 0.86 on average for all groups). Inclusion of the apple insoluble fibre improved NDF digestibility at faecal (0.222 vs. 0.069. P < 0.05) but not at ileal level. Caecal content of rabbits fed apple pulp diet was more acid than those fed control diet (5.55 vs. 5.95. P < 0.001), whereas those from pectin and depectinised apple pulp diets showed intermediate values. In conclusion, the positive effect of apple fibre on ileal mucin flow was mainly due to its soluble fibre fraction. Half of the soluble apple fibre was degraded before the caecum independently it came from pectin or apple pulp. The caecal pH correlated better with the total and ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. The results obtained in the studies 2, 3 and 4 were considered together. These results showed that the mucin correction is necessary when the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility is determined, and it correction is more important at ileal level and in diets with low level of soluble fibre. On another hand, incrementing the soluble fibre using sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF disappear before the caecum. Moreover, the caecal pH correlated better with the ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. This suggests that an ileal fibre solubilisation may occur rather than ileal fermentation. Therefore the implications of this work were that: the estimation of soluble fibre as SDFaNDFom-cp is an adequate method considering its correlation with the physiological effects; and the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility must be corrected with intestinal mucins, especially when the ileal digestibility is determined.

The role of formulation excipients in the development of lyophilised fast-disintegrating tablets

Despite recent Success, many fast-disintegrating tablets (FDTs) still face problems of low mechanical strength, poor mouth-feel and higher disintegration times. This Study aimed to optimise FDTS using a progressive three-stage approach. A series of hardness, fracturability and disintegration time tests were performed on the formulations at each stage. During Stage 1, tablets were prepared in concentrations between 2% and 5% w/w, and were formulated at each concentration as single and combination bloom strength gelatin (BSG) using 75 and 225 BSGs. Analysis revealed that both hardness and disintegration time increased with an increase in gelatin concentration. A combination (5% gelatin) FDT comprising a 50:50 ratio of 75:225 BSGs (hardness: 13.7 +/- 0.9 N and disintegration time: 24.1 +/- 0.6 s) was judged the most ideal, and was carried forward to Stage II: the addition of the saccharides sorbitol, mannitol and sucrose in concentrations between 10% and 80% w/w. The best properties were exhibited by mannitol-containing formulations (50%-hardness: 30.9 +/- 2.8 N and disintegration time: 13.3 +/- 2.1 s), which were carried forward to the next stage: the addition of viscosity-modifying polymers to improve mouth-feel and aid pre-gastric retention. Addition of carbopol 974P-NF resulted in the enhancement of viscosity with a compromise of the hardness of the tablet, whereas Pluronic F127 (6%) showed an increase in disintegration time and viscosity with retention of mechanical propel-ties. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A computational model of prosody for Yorùbá text-to-speech synthesis

This work examines prosody modelling for the Standard Yorùbá (SY) language in the context of computer text-to-speech synthesis applications. The thesis of this research is that it is possible to develop a practical prosody model by using appropriate computational tools and techniques which combines acoustic data with an encoding of the phonological and phonetic knowledge provided by experts. Our prosody model is conceptualised around a modular holistic framework. The framework is implemented using the Relational Tree (R-Tree) techniques (Ehrich and Foith, 1976). R-Tree is a sophisticated data structure that provides a multi-dimensional description of a waveform. A Skeletal Tree (S-Tree) is first generated using algorithms based on the tone phonological rules of SY. Subsequent steps update the S-Tree by computing the numerical values of the prosody dimensions. To implement the intonation dimension, fuzzy control rules where developed based on data from native speakers of Yorùbá. The Classification And Regression Tree (CART) and the Fuzzy Decision Tree (FDT) techniques were tested in modelling the duration dimension. The FDT was selected based on its better performance. An important feature of our R-Tree framework is its flexibility in that it facilitates the independent implementation of the different dimensions of prosody, i.e. duration and intonation, using different techniques and their subsequent integration. Our approach provides us with a flexible and extendible model that can also be used to implement, study and explain the theory behind aspects of the phenomena observed in speech prosody.

Structure and function in primary open angle glaucoma

The study utilised a Normal group, an Ocular Hypertensive (OHT) group and a Primary Open Angle Glaucoma (POAG) group to investigate two aspects. Firstly, the within- and between-visit variability for stereometric measurements of the optic nerve head (ONH) using the Heidelberg Retina Tomograph (HRT); retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL) thickness using the HRT and using optical coherence tomography with the Optical Coherence Tomography Scanner (OCT); the visual field using white-on-white (W-W), short-wavelength (SWAP) and Frequency Doubling perimetry (FDT); and retinal haemodynamics using the Heidelberg Retinal Flowmeter (HRF). Secondly, the association demonstrated between some of the derived variables. The within- and between-visit variability for stereometric measurements of the entire ONH and the between-visit variability for sectoral measurements were similar for Normals and OHTs but greater for POAGs. The within-visit variability of the visual field pointwise parameters for SWAP were greater than for W-W and FDT particularly with increase in eccentricity and for the OHT group. The between-visit variability increased with increase in defect depth for the POAG group, across all types of perimetry. The MS was greater, the MD and PSD smaller and the examination duration shorter in FDT compared to W-W and SWAP across all groups. The within-visit variability was less than the between-visit variability for the OCT circumferential and sector RNFL thickness using the 1.5R, 2.0R and the fixed 1.73mm circular scan radii, across the three groups. The variability increased with decrease in the RNFL thickness, and was least for the 2.0R scan radius.

Investigation into visual defects attributed to Vigabatrin

Vigabatrin (VGB) is a transaminase inhibitor that elicits its anitepileptic effect by increasing GABA concentrations in the brain and retina. - Assess whether certain factors predispose patients to develop severe visual field loss. - Develop a sensitive algorithm for investigating the progression of visual field loss. - Determine the most sensitive clinical regimen for diagnosing VGB-attributed visual field loss. - Investigate whether the reports of central retinal sparing are accurate. The investigations have resulted in a number of significant findings: - The anatomical evidence in combination with the pattern of visual field loss suggests that the damage induced by VGB therapy occurs at retinal level, and is most likely a toxic effect. - The quantitative algorithm, designed within the course of this investigation, provided increased sensitivity in determining the severity of visual field loss. - Maximum VGB dose predisposes patients to develop severe visual field loss. - The SITA Standard algorithm was found to be as sensitive and significantly faster, in diagnosing visual field defects attributed to VGB, when compared to the Full Threshold algorithm. The Full Threshold was found to be the most repeatable between visits. - The normal SWAP 10-2 database provided an effective method of differentiating SWAP defects. - SWAP, FDT and the mfERG have increased sensitivity in detecting visual field loss attributed to VGB. The pattern of visual field loss from these investigations suggests that VGB produces a diffuse effect across the retina including subtle central abnormalities and more severe peripheral defects. - Abnormalities detected using the mfERG have suggested that VGB adversely affects the photoreceptors Müller, amacrine and ganglion cells in the retina. An urgent review of the manufacturers recommended maximum dose for VGB is required.

Retinal and systemic vascular function in health and disease: the effect of smoking and coronary artery disease

The purpose of the following studies was to explore the effect of systemic vascular and endothelial dysfunction upon the ocular circulation and functionality of the retina. There are 6 principal sections to the present work. Retinal vessel activity in smokers and non-smokers: the principal findings of this work were: chronic smoking affects retinal vessel motion at baseline and during stimulation with flickering light; chronic smoking leads to a vaso-constrictory shift in retinal arteriolar reactivity to flicker; retinal arteriolar elasticity is decreased in chronic smokers. The effect of acute smoking on retinal vessel dynamics in smokers and non-smokers: the principal finding of this work was that retinal reactivity in chronic smokers is blunted when exposed to clicker light provocation immediately after smoking one cigarette. Ocular blood flow in coronary artery disease: The principal findings of this work were: retrobulbar and retinal blood flow is preserved in CAD patients, despite a change pulse wave transmission; arterial retinal response to flickering light provocation is significantly delayed in CAD patients; retinal venular diameters are significantly dilated in CAD patients. Autonomic nervous system function and peripheral circulation in CAD: The principal findings in this work were: CAD patients demonstrate a sympathetic overdrive during a 24 period; a delay in peripheral vascular reactivity (nail-fold capillaries) as observed in patients suffering from CAD could be caused by either arteriosclerotic changes of the vascular walls or due to systemic haemodynamic changes. Visual function in CAD: The principal findings in this work were: overall visual function in CAD patients is preserved, despite a decrease in contrast sensitivity; applying a filtering technique selecting those with greater coefficient of variance which in turn represents a decrease in reliability, some patients appear to have an impaired visual function as assessed using FDT visual field evaluation. Multiple functional, structural and biochemical vascular endothelial dysfunctions in patients suffering from CAD: relationships and possible implications: The principal findings of this work were: BMI significantly correlated with vWF (a marker of endothelial function) in CAD patients. Retinal vascular reactivity showed a significant correlation with peripheral reactivity parameters in controls which lacked in the CAD group and could reflect a loss in vascular endothelial integrity; visual field parameters as assessed by frequency doubling technology were strongly related with systemic vascular elasticity (ambulatory arterial stiffness index) in controls but not CAD patients.

A modular holistic approach to prosody modelling for Standard Yorùbá speech synthesis

This paper presents a novel prosody model in the context of computer text-to-speech synthesis applications for tone languages. We have demonstrated its applicability using the Standard Yorùbá (SY) language. Our approach is motivated by the theory that abstract and realised forms of various prosody dimensions should be modelled within a modular and unified framework [Coleman, J.S., 1994. Polysyllabic words in the YorkTalk synthesis system. In: Keating, P.A. (Ed.), Phonological Structure and Forms: Papers in Laboratory Phonology III, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 293–324]. We have implemented this framework using the Relational Tree (R-Tree) technique. R-Tree is a sophisticated data structure for representing a multi-dimensional waveform in the form of a tree. The underlying assumption of this research is that it is possible to develop a practical prosody model by using appropriate computational tools and techniques which combine acoustic data with an encoding of the phonological and phonetic knowledge provided by experts. To implement the intonation dimension, fuzzy logic based rules were developed using speech data from native speakers of Yorùbá. The Fuzzy Decision Tree (FDT) and the Classification and Regression Tree (CART) techniques were tested in modelling the duration dimension. For practical reasons, we have selected the FDT for implementing the duration dimension of our prosody model. To establish the effectiveness of our prosody model, we have also developed a Stem-ML prosody model for SY. We have performed both quantitative and qualitative evaluations on our implemented prosody models. The results suggest that, although the R-Tree model does not predict the numerical speech prosody data as accurately as the Stem-ML model, it produces synthetic speech prosody with better intelligibility and naturalness. The R-Tree model is particularly suitable for speech prosody modelling for languages with limited language resources and expertise, e.g. African languages. Furthermore, the R-Tree model is easy to implement, interpret and analyse.

A fuzzy decision tree-based duration model for Standard Yorùbá text-to-speech synthesis

In this paper, we present syllable-based duration modelling in the context of a prosody model for Standard Yorùbá (SY) text-to-speech (TTS) synthesis applications. Our prosody model is conceptualised around a modular holistic framework. This framework is implemented using the Relational Tree (R-Tree) techniques. An important feature of our R-Tree framework is its flexibility in that it facilitates the independent implementation of the different dimensions of prosody, i.e. duration, intonation, and intensity, using different techniques and their subsequent integration. We applied the Fuzzy Decision Tree (FDT) technique to model the duration dimension. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of FDT in duration modelling, we have also developed a Classification And Regression Tree (CART) based duration model using the same speech data. Each of these models was integrated into our R-Tree based prosody model. We performed both quantitative (i.e. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Correlation (Corr)) and qualitative (i.e. intelligibility and naturalness) evaluations on the two duration models. The results show that CART models the training data more accurately than FDT. The FDT model, however, shows a better ability to extrapolate from the training data since it achieved a better accuracy for the test data set. Our qualitative evaluation results show that our FDT model produces synthesised speech that is perceived to be more natural than our CART model. In addition, we also observed that the expressiveness of FDT is much better than that of CART. That is because the representation in FDT is not restricted to a set of piece-wise or discrete constant approximation. We, therefore, conclude that the FDT approach is a practical approach for duration modelling in SY TTS applications. © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Produção e purificação de biogás utilizando microalga spirulina sp. LEB-18

O crescimento da população mundial e a tentativa de substituição parcial dos combustíveis fósseis por novas fontes de energia têm levado a uma maior atenção quanto à possível escassez de alimentos e a carência de grandes áreas disponíveis para agricultura. Microalgas, por meio do metabolismo fotossintético, utilizam energia solar e gás carbônico como nutrientes para o crescimento. A microalga Spirulina pode ser utilizada como suplemento alimentar, na biofixação de CO2, como fonte de biocombustíveis e no tratamento de efluentes. A digestão anaeróbia da biomassa microalgal produz biogás e os resíduos deste processo podem ser utilizados como substrato para novos cultivos da microalga. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a conversão de Spirulina sp. LEB-18 em biogás em escala piloto e produzir biomassa microalgal utilizando os efluentes bicarbonato e dióxido de carbono do processo anaeróbio como fonte de nutrientes. Spirulina foi utilizada como substrato na digestão anaeróbia para produção de biogás em escala piloto sob temperaturas variáveis (12- 38 °C). Efluente do processo anaeróbio foi adicionado (20 %, v/v) como fonte de carbono no cultivo da microalga para avaliar o crescimento e a composição da biomassa. A seguir foi avaliada a capacidade da microalga de remover CO2 presente no biogás através de biofixação para obtenção do biocombustível purificado. O biogás produzido sob as diferentes temperaturas apresentou entre 72,2 e 74,4 % de CH4, quando realizado nas temperaturas 12 a 21 °C e 26 a 38 °C, respectivamente. A redução na temperatura do processo anaeróbio provocou um decréscimo na conversão de biomassa em biogás (0,30 para 0,22 g.g-1 ), ocorrendo dentro da faixa adequada e segura para as bactérias metanogênicas (pH 6,9; alcalinidade entre 1706,0 e 2248,0 mg.L-1 CaCO3 e nitrogênio amoniacal 479,3 a 661,7 mg.L-1 ). Os cultivos de Spirulina sp. LEB-18 em efluente anaeróbio contendo 20 % (v/v) e meio Zarrouk modificado (NaHCO3 2,8 e 5,3 g.L-1 ) apresentaram velocidade específica máxima de crescimento entre 0,324 e 0,354 d-1 , produtividade volumétrica entre 0,280 e 0,297 g.L-1 .d-1 e produtividade areal entre 14,00 e 14,85 g.m-2 .d-1 , sem diferenças significativas (p > 0,05) entre as diferentes condições estudadas. Lipídios variaram entre 4,9 e 5,0 % com proporção de ácido linoleico maximizada nos meios com efluente e ácido alfa-linolênico reduzida nesses meios em comparação ao meio Zarrouk completo. Nos ensaios para avaliar a capacidade da microalga Spirulina sp. LEB-18 de remover CO2 contaminante no biogás, as máximas concentrações celulares e produtividades de biomassa variaram, respectivamente, entre 1,12 e 1,24 g.L-1 e 0,11 e 0,14 g.L-1 .d-1 , não apresentando diferenças significativas (p > 0,05) entre os ensaios. A maior fixação diária total (FDT) de dióxido de carbono obtida foi 58,01 % (v/v) em cultivos com adição de biogás contendo 25 % (v/v) CO2. Obteve-se biogás com 89,5 % (v/v) de CH4 após injeção em cultivos de Spirulina, no qual aproximadamente 45 % (v/v) do CO2 injetado foi fixado pela microalga, gerando biomassa para diversas aplicações e biogás purificado.