Plastic traits of an exotic grass contribute to its abundance but are not always favourable

In herbaceous ecosystems worldwide, biodiversity has been negatively impacted by changed grazing regimes and nutrient enrichment. Altered disturbance regimes are thought to favour invasive species that have a high phenotypic plasticity, although most studies measure plasticity under controlled conditions in the greenhouse and then assume plasticity is an advantage in the field. Here, we compare trait plasticity between three co-occurring, C 4 perennial grass species, an invader Eragrostis curvula, and natives Eragrostis sororia and Aristida personata to grazing and fertilizer in a three-year field trial. We measured abundances and several leaf traits known to correlate with strategies used by plants to fix carbon and acquire resources, i.e. specific leaf area (SLA), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), leaf nutrient concentrations (N, C:N, P), assimilation rates (Amax) and photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency (PNUE). In the control treatment (grazed only), trait values for SLA, leaf C:N ratios, Amax and PNUE differed significantly between the three grass species. When trait values were compared across treatments, E. curvula showed higher trait plasticity than the native grasses, and this correlated with an increase in abundance across all but the grazed/fertilized treatment. The native grasses showed little trait plasticity in response to the treatments. Aristida personata decreased significantly in the treatments where E. curvula increased, and E. sororia abundance increased possibly due to increased rainfall and not in response to treatments or invader abundance. Overall, we found that plasticity did not favour an increase in abundance of E. curvula under the grazed/fertilized treatment likely because leaf nutrient contents increased and subsequently its' palatability to consumers. E. curvula also displayed a higher resource use efficiency than the native grasses. These findings suggest resource conditions and disturbance regimes can be manipulated to disadvantage the success of even plastic exotic species.

An invasive grass shows colonization advantages over native grasses under conditions of low resource availability

Increased or fluctuating resources may facilitate opportunities for invasive exotic plants to dominate. This hypothesis does not, however, explain how invasive species succeed in regions characterized by low resource conditions or how these species persist in the lulls between high resource periods. We compare the growth of three co-occurring C4 perennial bunchgrasses under low resource conditions: an exotic grass, Eragrostis curvula (African lovegrass) and two native grasses, Themeda triandra and Eragrostis sororia. We grew each species over 12 weeks under low nutrients and three low water regimes differentiated by timing: continuous, pulsed, and mixed treatments (switched from continuous to pulsed and back to continuous). Over time, we measured germination rates, time to germination (first and second generations), height, root biomass, vegetative biomass, and reproductive biomass. Contrary to our expectations that the pulsed watering regime would favor the invader, water-supply treatments had little significant effect on plant growth. We did find inherent advantages in a suite of early colonization traits that likely favor African lovegrass over the natives including faster germination speed, earlier flowering times, faster growth rates and from 2 weeks onward it was taller. African lovegrass also showed similar growth allocation strategies to the native grasses in terms of biomass levels belowground, but produced more vegetative biomass than kangaroo grass. Overall our results suggest that even under low resource conditions invasive plant species like African lovegrass can grow similarly to native grasses, and for some key colonization traits, like germination rate, perform better than natives.

Understanding the mechanism behind invasion of African lovegrass

African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) is a C4 perennial grass, native to southern Africa, that was accidentally introduced into Australia in the late 1900s as a contaminant of pasture seed. Its utility for pasture improvement and soil conservation was explored because of its recognised ability to grow in areas of low rainfall and on nutrient-poor sandy loams. Several different agronomic types have now been intentionally introduced across Australia. African lovegrass is now found in all Australian states and territories. It is a declared weed in 33 council areas of New South Wales, a declared pest plant in the ACT and Tasmania and a Regionally Prohibited Weed in 5 out of 11 regions in Victoria. Victoria has also placed it in the very serious threat category (Carr et al. 1992). In Queensland, it has yet to be declared except under local law in the Eidsvold shire (Leigh and Walton, in press).

Unravelling the mechanisms behind the invasion of an introduced and now undesirable grass species

The introduction of Eragrostis curvula (African Lovegrass, herafter Lovegrass) for pasture improvement across Australia has not been successful. Instead Lovegrass, a C4 perennial grass originating from Southern African, has proven unpalatable to stock and to have low nutritional value if stocks do eat it. It has spread prolifically along roadsides, stream banks, conservation areas and pastures. Because control efforts have not been effective, our aim was to determine the putative mechanisms responsible for the dominance of Lovegrass, specifically disturbance (selective grazing) and competition.

A highly divergent South African geminivirus species illuminates the ancient evolutionary history of this family

Background. We have characterised a new highly divergent geminivirus species, Eragrostis curvula streak virus (ECSV), found infecting a hardy perennial South African wild grass. ECSV represents a new genus-level geminivirus lineage, and has a mixture of features normally associated with other specific geminivirus genera. Results. Whereas the ECSV genome is predicted to express a replication associated protein (Rep) from an unspliced complementary strand transcript that is most similar to those of begomoviruses, curtoviruses and topocuviruses, its Rep also contains what is apparently a canonical retinoblastoma related protein interaction motif such as that found in mastreviruses. Similarly, while ECSV has the same unusual TAAGATTCC virion strand replication origin nonanucleotide found in another recently described divergent geminivirus, Beet curly top Iran virus (BCTIV), the rest of the transcription and replication origin is structurally more similar to those found in begomoviruses and curtoviruses than it is to those found in BCTIV and mastreviruses. ECSV also has what might be a homologue of the begomovirus transcription activator protein gene found in begomoviruses, a mastrevirus-like coat protein gene and two intergenic regions. Conclusion. Although it superficially resembles a chimaera of geminiviruses from different genera, the ECSV genome is not obviously recombinant, implying that the features it shares with other geminiviruses are those that were probably present within the last common ancestor of these viruses. In addition to inferring how the ancestral geminivirus genome may have looked, we use the discovery of ECSV to refine various hypotheses regarding the recombinant origins of the major geminivirus lineages. © 2009 Varsani et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

Recovering Functional Integrity in Pastures Dominated by an Invasive Grass Species

Exotic grasses have been introduced in countries worldwide for pasture improvement, soil stabilisation and ornamental purposes. Some of these introductions have proven successful, but many have not (Cook & Dias 2006). In Australia, the Commonwealth Plant Introduction Scheme was initiated in 1929, and over-time introduced more than 5000 species of grasses, legumes and other forage and browse plants (Cook & Dias 2006). Lonsdale (1994) suggested that, in tropical Australia, 13% of introductions have become a problem, with only 5% being considered useful for agriculture. Low (1997) suggested that 5 out of 18 of Australia's worst tropical environmental weeds were intentionally introduced as pasture grasses. The spread and dominance of invasive grass species that degrade the quality of pastures for production can impact significantly on the livelihoods of small proprietors. Although Livestock grazing contributes only a small percentage to the world's GDP (1.5%), maintaining the long-term stability of this industry is crucial because of the high social and environmental consequence of a collapse. One billion of the world's poor are dependent on livestock grazing for food and income with this industry occupying more than 25% of the world's land base (Steinfeld et al. 2006). The ling-term sustainability of livestock grazing is also crucial for the environment. A recent FAO report attributed livestock production as a major cause of five of the most serious environmental problems: global warming, land degredation, air and water pollution, and the loss of biodiversity (Steinfeld et al. 2006). For these reasons, finding more effective approaches that guide the sustainable management of pastures is urgently needed. In Australia more than 55% of land use is for livestock grazing by sheelp and/or cattle. This land use dominate in the semi-arid and arid regions where rainfall and soil conditions are marginal for production (Commonwealth of Australia 2004). Although the level of agriculture production by conglomerates is increasing, the majority of livestock grazing within Australia remains family owned and operated (Commonwealth of Australia 2004). The sustainability of production from a grazed pasture is dependent on its botanical composition (Kemp & Dowling 1991, Kemp et al. 1996). In a grazed pasture, the dominance of an invasive grass species can impact on the functional integrity of the ecosystem, including production and nutrient cycling; wwhich will in turn, affect the income of proprietors and the ability of the system to recover from disturbance and environmental change. In Australia, $0.3 billion is spent on weed control in livestock production, but despite this substantial investment $1.9 billion is still lost in yield as a result of weeds (Sinden et al. 2004). In this paper, we adaprt a framework proposed for the restoration of degraded rainforest communities (Lamb & Gilmour 2003, Lamb et al. 2005) to compare and contrast options for recovering function integrity (i.e. a diverse set of desirable plant species that maintain key ecological processes necessary for sustainable production and nutrient cycling) within pasture communities dominated by an invasive grass species. To do this, we uase a case-study of the invasion of Eragrostis curvula (Africal lovegrss; hereafter, Lovegrass), a serious concern in Australian agricultural communities (Parsons and Cuthbertson 1992). The spread and dominance of Lovegrass is a problem because its low palatability, low nutritional content and competitiveness affect the livelihood of graziers by reducing the diversity of other plant species. We conclude by suggesting modifications to this framework for pasture ecosystems to help increase the effiency of strategies to protect functional integrity and balance social/economic and biodiversity values.

Grass pollen allergens globally: The contribution of subtropical grasses to burden of allergic respiratory diseases

Grass pollens of the temperate (Pooideae) subfamily and subtropical subfamilies of grasses are major aeroallergen sources worldwide. The subtropical Chloridoideae (e.g. Cynodon dactylon; Bermuda grass) and Panicoideae (e.g. Paspalum notatum; Bahia grass) species are abundant in parts of Africa, India, Asia, Australia and the Americas, where a large and increasing proportion of the world's population abide. These grasses are phylogenetically and ecologically distinct from temperate grasses. With the advent of global warming, it is conceivable that the geographic distribution of subtropical grasses and the contribution of their pollen to the burden of allergic rhinitis and asthma will increase. This review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of the current global knowledge of (i) regional variation in allergic sensitivity to subtropical grass pollens, (ii) molecular allergenic components of subtropical grass pollens and (iii) allergic responses to subtropical grass pollen allergens in relevant populations. Patients from subtropical regions of the world show higher allergic sensitivity to grass pollens of Chloridoideae and Panicoideae grasses, than to temperate grass pollens. The group 1 allergens are amongst the allergen components of subtropical grass pollens, but the group 5 allergens, by which temperate grass pollen extracts are standardized for allergen content, appear to be absent from both subfamilies of subtropical grasses. Whilst there are shared allergenic components and antigenic determinants, there are additional clinically relevant subfamily-specific differences, at T- and B-cell levels, between pollen allergens of subtropical and temperate grasses. Differential immune recognition of subtropical grass pollens is likely to impact upon the efficacy of allergen immunotherapy of patients who are primarily sensitized to subtropical grass pollens. The literature reviewed herein highlights the clinical need to standardize allergen preparations for both types of subtropical grass pollens to achieve optimal diagnosis and treatment of patients with allergic respiratory disease in subtropical regions of the world. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Impacts of grazing management options on pasture and animal productivity in a Heteropogon contortus (black speargrass) pasture in central Queensland. 3. Diet composition in autumn

The diet selected in autumn by steers fistulated at the oesophageous was studied in a subset of treatments in an extensive grazing study conducted in a Heteropogon contortus pasture in central Queensland between 1988 and 2001. These treatments were a factorial array of three stocking rates (4, 3 and 2 ha/steer) and three pasture types (native pasture, legume-oversown native pasture and animal diet supplement/spring-burning native pasture). Seasonal rainfall throughout this study was below the long-term mean and mean annual pasture utilisation ranged from 30 to 61%. Steers consistently selected H. contortus with levels decreasing from 47 to 18% of the diet as stocking rate increased from 4 ha/steer to 2 ha/steer. Stylosanthes scabra cv. Seca was always selected in legume-oversown pastures with diet composition varying from 35 to 66% despite its plant density increasing from 7 to 65 plants/m(2) and pasture composition from 20 to 50%. Steers also selected a diet containing Chrysopogon fallax, forbs and sedges in higher proportions than they were present in the pasture. Greater availability of the intermediate grasses Chloris divaricata and Eragrostis spp. was associated with increased stocking rates. Bothriochloa bladhii was seldom selected in the diet, especially when other palatable species were present in the pasture, despite B. bladhii often being the major contributor to total pasture yield. It was concluded that a stocking rate of 4 ha/steer will maintain the availability of H. contortus in the pasture.

Evaluating pasture species for less fertile soils in a subtropical aseasonal low rainfall zone

Grasses, legumes, saltbushes and herbs were evaluated at 6 sites in southern inland Queensland to identify potential pasture and forage plants for use on marginal cropping soils. The region experiences summer heat waves and severe winter frosts. Emphasis was on perennial plants, and native species were included. Seedlings were transplanted into the unfertilized fields in either summer or autumn to suit the growing season of plants, and watered to ensure estab-lishment. Summer-growing grasses were the most successful group, while cool season-growing perennials mostly failed. Summer legumes were disappointing, with Stylosanthes scabra and Indigofera schimperi performing best. Some lines such as I. schimperi and the Eragrostis hybrid cv. Cochise were assessed as potential weeds owing to low animal acceptance. Native Rhynchosia minima grew well at some sites and deserves more study. Cenchrus ciliaris was always easy to establish and produced the highest yields. Persistence of some Digitaria and Bothriochloa species, Eragrostis curvula and Fingerhuthia africana at specific sites was encouraging, but potential weediness needs careful assessment. Standard species were identified to represent the main forage types, such as Austrostipa scabra for cool season-growing grasses, for incorporation into future trials with new genetic materials. The early field testing protocol used should be considered for use elsewhere, if unreliable rainfall poses a high risk of establishment failure from scarce seed.

Perennial pastures for marginal farming country in southern Queensland. 1. Grass establishment techniques

Efficient ways to re-establish pastures are needed on land that requires a rotation between pastures and crops. We conducted trials in southern inland Queensland with a range of tropical perennial grasses sown into wheat stubble that was modified in various ways. Differing seedbed preparations involved cultivation or herbicide sprays, with or without fertilizer at sowing. Seed was broadcast and sowing time ranged from spring through to autumn on 3 different soil types. Seed quality and post-sowing rainfall were major determinants of the density of sown grass plants in the first year. Light cultivation sometimes enhanced establishment compared with herbicide spraying of standing stubble, most often on harder-setting soils. A nitrogen + phosphorus mixed fertilizer rarely produced any improvement in sown grass establishment and sometimes increased weed competition. The effects were similar for all types of grass seed from hairy fascicles to large, smooth panicoid seeds and minute Eragrostis seeds. There was a strong inverse relationship between the initial density of sown grass established and the level of weed competition.

Perennial pastures for marginal farming country in southern Queensland. 2. Potential new grass cultivar evaluation

Trials in the Condamine-Balonne basin, Australia, compared 11 promising perennial pasture grass accessions (4 Bothriochloa, 2 Cenchrus, 2 Urochloa and 1 each of Digitaria, Eragrostis and Panicum species) against the best similar commercial cultivars on the basis of ease of establishment from seed, persistence once established, forage yield and ease of seed production. Accessions sown at a site were determined by prior experience with them on a range of soils. High quality seed was relatively easy to produce for both Urochloa species and for Eragrostis curvula CPI 30374 but problematic for the Bothriochloa spp. Once established, all accessions persisted for 3–5 years and most were well grazed, but adequate establishment was sometimes a problem with Panicum stapfianum and Bothriochloa ewartiana. The dry matter yield ratings of the non-commercial lines were similar to those of the commercial equivalents of the same species. While agronomically valuable, none of the promising new grasses was considered worthy of commercialization at this point because their strengths did not warrant the setting up of a seed-production business in competition with current commercial enterprises. Long-standing cultivars such as Gayndah buffel and Nixon sabi grass continued to exhibit their superior pasture qualities.

Evaluación del efecto antídoto de fluxofenin sobre Digitaria Eriantha y Panicum Coloratum cv. Klein para aplicar herbicidas preemergentes

Resumen: En la región semiárida central, las gramíneas perennes megatérmicas contribuyen a disminuir los riesgos de erosión, a incrementar la receptividad en los sistemas de producción basados en pastizales naturales y a disminuir los costos de producción. Una de las especies de mayor difusión es pasto llorón (Eragrostis curvula). La resistencia a las bajas temperaturas invernales (-17°C), alta producción primaria y resistencia al pastoreo son algunas de las virtudes de esta especie. No obstante, durante el semestre frío y seco (otoño-invierno) el valor nutritivo del forraje diferido es muy bajo. La suplementación con concentrados energéticos –proteicos soluciona este problema, aunque incrementa los costos y complica el manejo. La identificación y evaluación de otras especies con características semejantes a pasto llorón, pero de mayor valor nutritivo sobre todo durante el invierno, fue una línea de trabajo importante en el INTA San Luis. De éste trabajo, surgieron dos especies actualmente en difusión en los sistemas de producción, a saber: Digitaria (Digitaria eriantha) y Mijo perenne (Panicum coloratum). Si bien la adopción de esta tecnología es importante, podría ser aún más elevada. Las dificultades de implantación es una causa relevante, sobre todo en potreros que han sido cultivados con especies anuales durante muchos años. En estos sitios, existe un importante banco de semilla de malezas gramíneas, que dificultan el control sin afectar la digitaria. El desarrollo de herbicidas preemergentes con gran poder residual, como así de compuestos químicos que funcionan como antídotos para proteger las especies que son afectadas por estos herbicidas, podrían resultar valiosos. Se dispone en el mercado de herbicidas de presiembra o preemergentes residuales formulados en base a acetamidas, a saber: i) S-metolaclor y ii) Acetoclor que controlan un amplio espectro de malezas incluidas las malezas problemas mencionadas. También se dispone de una sustancia química que funciona como antídoto-protector (fluxofenin) con el nombre comercial de Concep II y es utilizado para sembrar exitosamente el cultivo de sorgo. Se desconoce si éste compuesto podría proteger a las plántulas de digitaria y panicum. Se hipotetiza que la aplicación en el suelo de los herbicidas mencionados y la posterior siembra de semillas de digitaria y panicum protegidas con antídoto, no afectaría la germinación ni el desarrollo normal de plántulas de ambas especies. El objetivo de éste trabajo fue evaluar el efecto del antídoto, de los herbicidas y de la combinación de ambos sobre la germinación, crecimiento y sobrevivencia de plántulas de digitaria y panicum. El trabajo se desarrolló en el Laboratorio de semillas de la EEA San Luis del INTA, próxima a la ciudad de Villa Mercedes (Pcia. de San Luis). Se diseñaron 12 tratamientos con cuatro repeticiones para evaluar el efecto de cuatro dosis de antídoto (0; 20; 40 y 60 cc cada 100 kg de semilla) sin la aplicación de herbicidas (Sin), y la combinación de cada dosis de antídoto con dos herbicidas: SM (S-metolaclor) y A (Acetoclor) con la dosis recomendada comercialmente. Los tratamientos fueron: T1= (0:Sin); T2=(20:Sin); T3=(40:Sin); T4=(60:Sin); T5=(20:SM); T6=(40:SM); T7= (60:SM); T8=(20:A); T9=(40:A); T10=(60:A); T11=(0:SM); T12=(0:A). Se utilizaron 48 bandejas de plástico por especie forrajera de 15x10x3,5 cm, con 150 Se realizó la siembra al voleo con 0,5 gr de semilla en cada bandeja. Se compactó en forma semejante y cada bandeja se colocó en una bolsa de nylon para evitar la deshidratación. Luego se llevaron las 96 bandejas (2 especies forrajeras por 12 tratamientos por 4 repeticiones) a la cámara de cultivo con 30°C con 8 hs de luz y 20 °C con 16 hs de oscuridad. El ensayo tuvo una duración de 57 días. Se hicieron 14 mediciones de altura y n° de plantas. La unidad experimental fue la bandeja. Las variables respuesta (altura de hoja (mm) y el número de plantas) fueron sometidos a análisis de varianza y las medias comparadas utilizando el test de LSD. El nivel de significación utilizado en el trabajo es del 5%. Los resultados obtenidos: En Digitaria (Digitaria eriantha): I) El desarrollo y número de plantas fue mayor sin antídoto y sin herbicida, (p≤0,05) II) El tratamiento 6 (40:SM) resultó la mejor combinación para obtener un adecuado crecimiento y número de plántulas, aunque inferior al testigo (p≤0,05). III) Se logra efecto protector para el herbicida S-metolaclor con una dosis de antídoto entre 20cc y 40cc. IV) El antídoto es fitotóxico para la Digitaria Eriantha en dosis de 60cc (p≤0,05). V) El antídoto no protege a la Digitaria Eriantha en ninguna de sus dosis del herbicida Acetoclor En Mijo perenne (Panicum coloratum).: I) La aplicación de antídoto en la menor dosis (20 cc) no afectó el crecimiento ni el número de las plantas. En esta última variable, aún las dosis mayores del antídoto (40 y 60 cc) no tuvieron efectos negativos respecto al testigo (p≤0,05), II) La combinación del herbicida s-metolaclor (SM) con las dosis intermedias (20 y 40cc) de antídoto tuvo un ligero efecto negativo sobre el crecimiento y número de plantas respecto al testigo, aunque con diferencias significativas (p≤0,05) III) La aplicación del herbicida Acetoclor con todas las dosis del antídoto afectó significativamente el crecimiento y el número de plantas (p≤0,05). Se concluye que el tratamiento con antídoto en dosis bajas (20cc) no afecta el desarrollo ni el número de plantas de digitaria y panicum. Esta última especie es menos afectada que digitaria aún con mayores dosis. La mejor combinación de antídoto y herbicida SM, es de 20 cc para digitaria y 60 cc para panicum. El herbicida Acetoclor tuvo efectos negativos en ambas especies. Se recomienda realizar nuevos ensayos en condiciones reales de producción.

Estimación satelital de la productividad primaria neta aérea de la vegetación herbácea del Caldenal

En la Región del Caldenal es necesario generar cambios en la implementación de prácticas de manejo de la ganadería, desarrollar una actividad sustentable y, a su vez, evitar el mayor deterioro del ecosistema y sus servicios. Dichos cambios deberían incluir el uso racional del la vegetación herbácea, combinado con pasturas C4, actividad que en los últimos años se expandió en la región. Para lograr la complementariedad de dichos recursos y poder estructurar estrategias de manejo, debe conocerse su funcionamiento, estacionalidad y productividad. La información satelital provee la ventaja de otorgar gran cantidad y calidad de datos, en distintas escalas espaciales y temporales. El presente trabajo explora algunas posibilidades para la aplicación de dichas herramientas en la Región del Caldenal. La finalidad es proponer estrategias para conocer en forma sencilla la productividad primaria neta aérea del sistema, como determinante de la receptividad animal y el funcionamiento del ecosistema. Se utilizaron imágenes correspondientes a 60 potreros, distribuidos en seis localidades de la Región del Caldenal, Provincia de La Pampa, con bosque de caldén ("fachinal"), sabanas ("Caldenal"), pasturas de Eragrostis curvula y de Panicum coloratum. Con dichas imágenes se evaluó la variabilidad del Índice de Vegetación Normalizado (IVN) en el tiempo, relacionándolo con el funcionamiento ecosistémico (Capítulo 2), se propuso una metodología para discriminar el IVN de la vegetación herbácea y leñosa en los potreros de sabana (Capítulo 3) y se estimó la Productividad Primaria Neta Aérea de los distintos recursos, realizando comparaciones de estacionalidad y producción, y correlaciones con variables ambientales (Capítulo 4). El presente trabajo demuestra las potencialidades de uso de herramientas satelitales para estimar diferentes atributos de los recursos naturales y cultivados del Caldenal. El ajuste de dichas técnicas en la región resulta clave para el diseño de estrategias de manejo ganadero sustentables y conservación de los recursos.

Bases ecofisiológicas relacionadas con la tolerancia a la inundación y la defoliación en especies conspicuas de pastizales húmedos

Las inundaciones y el pastoreo son disturbios importantes que modulan la estructura y el funcionamiento de pastizales húmedos. La inundación genera un ambiente anaeróbico en el suelo, disminuyendo la disponibilidad de oxígeno para las raíces, mientras que el pastoreo afecta a la vegetación mediante la defoliación selectiva del forraje. En primer lugar se investigaron los rasgos anatómicos y las respuestas fisiológicas relacionadas con el crecimiento bajo anaerobiosis de raíces de graminoides (Paspalidium geminatum, Cyperus eragrostis) y dicotiledóneas (Lotus tenuis, Rumex crispus) con distintos tipos de aerénquima. Se encontró que las graminoides mantienen la tasa de elongación de sus raíces bajo anaerobiosis, con alta proporción de aerénquima para conducir oxígeno y una barrera física (menor suberina) - constitutiva en P. geminatum e inducida en C. eragrostis - que limita la pérdida radial de oxígeno hacia la rizósfera. Por el contrario, las dicotiledóneas disminuyen la elongación radical en medio anaeróbico, a pesar de incrementar el aerénquima en sus raíces, asociado a una alta pérdida radial de oxígeno y una menor deposición de suberina en la corteza radical externa. En segundo lugar, se estudiaron las estrategias de crecimiento de L. tenuis y P. dilatatum bajo condiciones de sumersión parcial y completa de sus plantas (i.e. intensidad de inundación), con énfasis en el uso de carbohidratos de reserva. Se demostró que L. tenuis puede desarrollar dos estrategias de crecimiento: 'escape' del agua bajo sumersión parcial sin usar sus reservas y sobrevivir 30 días en estado de 'quiescencia' bajo sumersión completa utilizando sus reservas. Por el contrario, P. dilatatum sólo desarrolla 'escape' bajo sumersión parcial y no tolera (muere) la sumersión completa. En tercer lugar, se evaluaron las respuestas de L. tenuis y P. dilatatum frente a la combinación inundación/frecuencia de defoliación. Aquí se encontró que L. tenuis tolera los eventos sucesivos de defoliación bajo inundación, con un mínimo crecimiento, a partir de priorizar la emergencia de las hojas fuera del agua post-corte, utilizando exhaustivamente las reservas en coronas. Por el contrario, P. dilatatum no sobrevive a dos defoliaciones si se encuentra bajo anegamiento. De esta manera, si bien ambas especies toleran la inundación y la defoliación por separado, si estos estreses se combinan se compromete la supervivencia de la gramínea y el rebrote de la leguminosa. En consecuencia, resulta importante considerar el tiempo entre defoliaciones sucesivas, si el suelo está inundado, al momento de planificar las estrategias de manejo de estas especies en el pastizal

Efeito de diferentes períodos de controle das plantas daninhas na produtividade da cultura da cebola

Foi realizado um experimento em Monte Alto-SP, visando estudar os efeitos de diferentes períodos de controle das plantas daninhas sobre a produção de bulbos da cultura da cebola (Allium cepa), cultivar 'Mercedes', no sistema de transplantio. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos ao acaso, com quatro repetições. Parte dos tratamentos experimentais foi disposta num esquema fatorial 4 x 6, em que constituíram variáveis quatro períodos em que se fez o controle (0-0, 0-7, 0-14 e 0-21 DAT) e seis períodos em que se reiniciou o controle das plantas daninhas prolongando até a colheita: 28, 42, 56, 70, 84 e 98 DAT). Duas testemunhas foram adotadas: uma com controle e outra sem controle das plantas daninhas durante todo o ciclo da cultura. Lycopersicon esculentum, Portulaca oleracea, Eragrostis pilosa e Galinsoga parviflora foram as plantas daninhas mais importantes na área. Não houve interação entre os diferentes períodos de controle das plantas daninhas. O controle inicial destas plantas deve se prolongar até 14 DAT e ser reiniciado aos 28 DAT, a fim de prevenir reduções significativas na produtividade em relação à testemunha no limpo A convivência com as plantas daninhas durante todo o ciclo da cebola reduziu a produtividade em 94,5%.