Reference groups and product line decisions: An experimental investigation of limited editions and product proliferation

Some luxury goods manufacturers offer limited editions of their products, whereas some others market multiple product lines. Researchers have found that reference groups shape consumer evaluations of these product categories. Yet little empirical research has examined how reference groups affect the product line decisions of firms. Indeed, in a field setting it is quite a challenge to isolate reference group effects from contextual effects and correlated effects. In this paper, we propose a parsimonious model that allows us to study how reference groups influence firm behavior and that lends itself to experimental analysis. With the aid of the model we investigate the behavior of consumers in a laboratory setting where we can focus on the reference group effects after controlling for the contextual and correlated effects. The experimental results show that in the presence of strong reference group effects, limited editions and multiple products can help improve firms' profits. Furthermore, the trends in the purchase decisions of our participants point to the possibility that they are capable of introspecting close to two steps of thinking at the outset of the game and then learning through reinforcement mechanisms. © 2010 INFORMS.

Effects of credit rating change on risk-taking

This thesis investigates whether there are changes in risk-taking behavior following an upgrade or downgrade in credit ratings. Research on effects of rating changes on capital markets is well-documented but the literature on how rating changes may affect firm behavior is sparse. Following, a downgrade in credit rating, managers may increase risk-taking to improve their overall performance or reduce risk-taking following upgrades to ensure that their performance is assessed more on the basis of what they may deem success in the form of an upgrade. Using a sample of firms trading in the U.S from 1994-2013, we find evidence of change in risk-taking behavior. We use cross-sectional regressions and matching using propensity scores and Barber and Lyon (1997) methodology to measure changes in risk-taking and we do find evidence of changes in managerial risk-taking behavior. Furthermore, we find that the direction of change (increase or decrease) in some cases is dependent on the type of measure rather than the type of rating change.

The impact of corporate social performance on financial risk and utility: a longitudinal analysis

This study focuses on the wealth-protective effects of socially responsible firm behavior by examining the association between corporate social performance (CSP) and financial risk for an extensive panel data sample of S&P 500 companies between the years 1992 and 2009. In addition, the link between CSP and investor utility is investigated. The main findings are that corporate social responsibility is negatively but weakly related to systematic firm risk and that corporate social irresponsibility is positively and strongly related to financial risk. The fact that both conventional and downside risk measures lead to the same conclusions adds convergent validity to the analysis. However, the risk-return trade-off appears to be such that no clear utility gain or loss can be realized by investing in firms characterized by different levels of social and environmental performance. Overall volatility conditions of the financial markets are shown to play a moderating role in the nature and strength of the CSP-risk relationship.

Enforcement in environmental law: an economic analysis of citizen suits

Previous to 1970, state and federal agencies held exclusive enforcement responsibilities over the violation of pollution control standards. However, recognizing that the government had neither the time nor resources to provide full enforcement, Congress created citizen suits. Citizen suits, first amended to the Clean Air Act in 1970, authorize citizens to act as private attorney generals and to sue polluters for violating the terms of their operating permits. Since that time, Congress has included citizen suits in 13 other federal statutes. The citizen suit phenomenon is sufficiently new that little is known about it. However, we do know that citizen suits have increased rapidly since the early 1980's. Between 1982 and 1986 the number of citizen suits jumped from 41 to 266. Obviously, they are becoming a widely used method of enforcing the environmental statutes. This paper will provide a detailed description, analysis and evaluation of citizen suits. It will begin with an introduction and will then move on to provide some historic and descriptive background on such issues as how citizen suit powers are delegated, what limitations are placed on the citizens, what parties are on each side of the suit, what citizens can enforce against, and the types of remedies available. The following section of the paper will provide an economic analysis of citizen suits. It will begin with a discussion of non-profit organizations, especially non-profit environmental organizations, detailing the economic factors which instigate their creation and activities. Three models will be developed to investigate the evolution and effects of citizen suits. The first model will provide an analysis of the demand for citizen suits from the point of view of a potential litigator showing how varying remedies, limitations and reimbursement procedures can effect both the level and types of activities undertaken. The second model shows how firm behavior could be expected to respond to citizen suits. Finally, a third model will look specifically at the issue of efficiency to determine whether the introduction of citizen enforcement leads to greater or lesser economic efficiency in pollution control. The database on which the analysis rests consists of 1205 cases compiled by the author. For the purposes of this project this list of citizen suit cases and their attributes were computerized and used to test a series of hypotheses derived from three original economic models. The database includes information regarding plaintiffs, defendants date notice and/or complaint was filed and statutes involved in the claim. The analysis focuses on six federal environmental statutes (Clean Water Act} Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act, Clean Air Act, Toxic Substances Control Act, and Safe Drinking Water Act) because the majority of citizen suits have occurred under these statutes.

A perspectiva do consumidor frente ao comportamento ético empresarial - 1ª Parte

Há uma tendência de mercados mais concorridos, devido à globalização, menores taxas de crescimento econômico e outras causas. Diante desse cenário, o papel desempenhado pelos consumidores influenciando o comportamento das empresas pode elevar-se. Todavia, várias questões a esse respeito despontam no Brasil. O que significa ética empresarial para os consumidores? Quais são as empresas éticas e antiéticas para os consumidores? A ética empresarial é importante para os consumidores? A ética empresarial é recompensada pelos consumidores? Acerca desta última e crucial questão, tendo-se por base uma série de artigos jornalísticos, a resposta parece ser sim. Todavia, nenhum resultado empírico acadêmico produzido no Brasil foi encontrado contemplando por completo essas questões. Este relatório envolve uma pesquisa teórica-empírica sobre tais questões. No plano teórico, foram examinados dois temas: a) a crescente relevância da ética nos negócios; b) o marketing e o papel da ética do consumidor, no exterior e no Brasil. Na parte empírica, dois foram os propósitos. O primeiro envolveu uma sondagem qualitativa, sob a ótica do consumidor, das melhores e piores práticas empresariais em termos de ética, assim como das empresas mais éticas e mais antiéticas. O segundo abrangeu a mensuração dos construtos Importância Atribuída pelo Consumidor ao Comportamento Ético Empresarial e Propensão do Consumidor a Recompensar o Comportamento Ético Empresarial, bem como o teste da existência de uma relação entre eles. Dados foram obtidos de uma amostra de assinantes de telefonia fixa da cidade de Campo Grande, estado de Mato Grosso do Sul. Ao final, as principais limitações e conclusões da pesquisa foram expostas e discutidas.

A perspectiva do consumidor frente ao comportamento ético empresarial - 2ª parte

Há uma tendência de mercados mais concorridos, devido à globalização, menores taxas de crescimento econômico e outras causas. Diante desse cenário, o papel desempenhado pelos consumidores influenciando o comportamento das empresas pode elevar-se. Mas várias questões a esse respeito despontam no Brasil. Quais são as principais práticas empresariais éticas e antiéticas para os consumidores? Quais são as empresas mais éticas e antiéticas para os consumidores? A ética empresarial é importante para os consumidores? A ética empresarial é recompensada pelos consumidores? Acerca desta última e crucial questão, tendo-se por base uma série de artigos jornalísticos, a resposta parece ser sim. Todavia, nenhum resultado empírico acadêmico produzido no Brasil foi encontrado contemplando por completo essas questões. Este relatório envolve uma pesquisa empírica sobre tais questões. Antes, no plano teórico, são examinados dois temas: a) a crescente relevância da ética nos negócios; b) o marketing e o papel da ética do consumidor, no exterior e no Brasil. Na parte empírica, dois são os propósitos. O primeiro envolve uma sondagem aberta, sob a ótica do consumidor, das melhores e piores práticas empresariais em termos de ética, assim como das empresas mais éticas e mais antiéticas. O segundo propósito abrange a mensuração dos construtos Importância Atribuída pelo Consumidor ao Comportamento Ético Empresarial e Propensão do Consumidor a Recompensar o Comportamento Ético Empresarial, bem como o teste da existência de uma relação entre eles. Dados foram obtidos de uma amostra de assinantes de telefonia fixa das cidades de Campo Grande (MS), Curitiba (PR) e Salvador (BA). Ao final, as principais limitações e conclusões da pesquisa são expostas e discutidas.

A perspectiva do consumidor frente ao comportamento ético empresarial (parte final)

Há uma tendência de mercados mais concorridos, devido à globalização, menores taxas de crescimento econômico e outras causas. Diante desse cenário, o papel desempenhado pelos consumidores influenciando o comportamento das empresas pode elevar-se. Mas várias questões a esse respeito despontam no Brasil. Quais são as principais práticas empresariais éticas e antiéticas para os consumidores? Quais são as empresas mais éticas e antiéticas para os consumidores? A ética empresarial é importante para os consumidores? A ética empresarial é recompensada pelos consumidores? Acerca desta última e crucial questão, tendo-se por base uma série de artigos jornalísticos, a resposta parece ser sim. Todavia, nenhum resultado empírico acadêmico produzido no Brasil foi encontrado contemplando por completo essas questões. Este relatório envolve uma pesquisa empírica sobre tais questões. Antes, no plano teórico, são examinados os temas da crescente relevância da ética nos negócios, do marketing e o papel da ética do consumidor, no exterior e no Brasil. Na parte empírica, dois são os propósitos. O primeiro envolve uma sondagem aberta, sob a ótica do consumidor, das melhores e piores práticas empresariais em termos de ética, assim como das empresas mais éticas e mais antiéticas. O segundo propósito abrange a mensuração dos construtos Importância Atribuída pelo Consumidor ao Comportamento Ético Empresarial (IMPETIC) e Propensão do Consumidor a Recompensar o Comportamento Ético Empresarial (RECETIC), bem como o teste da existência de uma relação entre eles. Dados foram obtidos de uma amostra de assinantes de telefonia fixa das cidades de Campo Grande, Curitiba, Salvador, Manaus e Vitória. Dos resultados, sobressai uma relação significante entre IMPETIC e RECETIC. Ao final, as principais limitações e conclusões da pesquisa são expostas e discutidas.

What Is Known about Testing for Discrimination: Lessons Learned by Comparing across Different Markets

The paper provides a fairly comprehensive examination of recent empirical work on discrimination within economics. The three major analytical approaches considered are traditional regression analysis of outcomes, paired testing or audits, and finally analysis of performance where higher group performance suggests that a group has been treated disfavorably. The review covers research in the labor, credit, and consumption markets, as well as recent studies of discrimination within the legal system. The review suggests that the validity of interpreting observed racial differences as discrimination depends heavily on whether the analysis is based on a sample that is representative of a population of individuals or households or based on a sample of market transactions, as well as the analyst?s ability to control for heterogeneity within that sample. Heterogeneous firm behavior and differentiated products, such as those found in labor and housing markets, also can confound empirical analyses of discrimination by confusing the allocation of individuals across firms or products with disparate treatment or by ignoring disparate impacts that might arise based on that allocation.

Investment promotion agencies: do they work?

In this paper, we examine the role of investment promotion agencies (IPAs) in promoting outward FDI from Japan and Korea. Looking at two home countries enables us to control for both country-pair time-invariant characteristics and host country time-varying characteristics. Our empirical results suggest that home-country IPAs tend to be more effective in promoting outward FDI in politically risky host countries. However, this finding depends on whether the home-country firm is listed or unlisted. More specifically, we find that the positive effect of home country IPAs on outward FDI in politically risky countries is limited to unlisted home- country firms, which are widely assumed to be less competitive and productive.

A two-dimensional analysis of the impact of outward FDI on performance at home: evidence from Japanese manufacturing firms

This paper empirically investigates two areas of changes in firm behavior and performance at home before and after investing abroad. The first change is dependent upon the type of foreign direct investment (FDI): horizontal FDI or vertical FDI. The second change is dependent upon the firm’s domestic activities: production activities or non-production activities. From a theoretical standpoint, the impact of outward FDIs differs not only by type, but according to the firm’s activities. By exploiting two types of firm-level data that enable us to distinguish between production and non-production activities, our paper provides a detailed picture of the intra-firm changes in behavior and performance that occur as a result of production globalization.

How does country risk matter for foreign direct investment?

In this paper, we aim to identify the political and financial risk components that matter most for the activities of multinational corporations. Our paper is the first paper to comprehensively examine the impact of various components of not only political risk but also financial risk on inward FDI, from both long-run and short-run perspectives. Using a sample of 93 countries (including 60 developing countries) for the period 1985-2007, we find that among the political risk components, government stability, socioeconomic conditions, investment profile, internal conflict, external conflict, corruption, religious tensions, democratic accountability, and ethnic tensions have a close association with FDI flows. In particular, socioeconomic conditions, investment profile, and external conflict appear to be the most influential components of political risk in attracting foreign investment. Among the financial risk components, only exchange rate stability yields statistically significant positive coefficients when estimated only for developing countries. In contrast, current account as a percentage of exports of goods and services, foreign debt as a percentage of GDP, net international liquidity as the number of months of import cover, and current account as a percentage of GDP yield negative coefficients in some specifications. Thus, multinationals do not seem to consider seriously the financial risk of the host country.

Chapter 5 Product Differentiation versus Geographical Differentiation: Evidence from the Pork Processing Industry in China

This chapter attempts to identify whether product differentiation or geographical differentiation is the main source of profit for firms in developing economies by employing a simple idea from the recently developed method of empirical industrial organization. Theoretically, location choice and product choice have been considered as analogues in differentiation, but in the real world, which of these strategies is chosen will result in an immense difference in firm behavior and in the development process of the industry. Development of the technique of empirical industrial organization enabled us to identify market outcomes with endogeneity. A typical case is the market outcome with differentiation, where price or product choice is endogenously determined. Our original survey contains data on market location, differences in product types, and price. The results show that product differentiation rather than geographical differentiation mitigates pressure on price competition, but 70 per cent secures geographical monopoly.

Competition of the mechanisms : how Chinese home appliance firms coped with default risk of trade credit?

During the transition period from a planned economy to a market economy in 1990s of China, there was a considerable accrual of deferred payment, and default due to inferior enforcement institutions. This is a very common phenomenon in the transition economies at that time. Interviews with home electronics appliance firms revealed that firms coped with this problem by adjusting their sales mechanisms (found four types), and the benefit of institutions was limited. A theoretical analysis claim that spot and integration are inferior to contracts, a contract with a rebate on volume and prepayment against an exclusive agent can realize the lowest cost and price. The empirical part showed that mechanisms converged into a mechanism with the rebate on volume an against exclusive agent and its price level is the lowest. The competition is the driving force of the convergence of mechanisms and improvement risk management capacity.

What motivates female operators to enter the garment industry in Pakistan in the post-MFA period?

Pakistan's knitwear exports had been struggling since the quota phase-out until 2009. A particular feature of Pakistan's garment industry is that hiring more male sewing operators at piece rates. Recently, a few surviving knitwear factories have adopted a strategy of shifting from male piece-rate operators to salaried female operators. In Pakistan, female participation in general workforce is very limited and hiring salaried female operators requires management effort and expertise. However, even in the factories with such management skills, household factors prevent females from working outside because Pakistani culture disrespects women working in factories. Our survey reveals that financial motives compel female household members to work outside their homes and that female operators contribute substantially to their households' finances.

Supply chain collaboration and responsiveness : a comparison between Thai automotive and electronics industries

This paper examines factors that promote firms to develop supply chain collaborations (SCC) with their partners and relationships between SCC and supply chain operational performances (SCOP), using a questionnaire survey on Thai automotive and electronics industries in 2012. This paper also carries out a comparative study on these questions between the electronics and automotive industries. Two-stage least squares (2SLS) regressions verifY that supplier evaluation and audit is a foundation for firms to share information and synchronize decision makings with their partners, and that such SCC are significantly related to SCOP indictors such as on-time delivery, fast procurement, and flexibility to customer need irrespective of industry type. On the other hand, competitive pressure motivates only electronics firms to develop sec in order to be more innovative.