The adenomatous polyposis coli-binding protein EB1 is associated with cytoplasmic and spindle microtubules

The evolutionarily conserved protein EB1 originally was identified by its physical association with the carboxyl-terminal portion of the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumor suppressor protein, an APC domain commonly mutated in familial and sporadic forms of colorectal neoplasia. The subcellular localization of EB1 in epithelial cells was studied by using immunofluorescence and biochemical techniques. EB1 colocalized both to cytoplasmic microtubules in interphase cells and to spindle microtubules during mitosis, with pronounced centrosome staining. The cytoskeletal array detected by anti-EB1 antibody was abolished by incubation of the cells with nocodazole, an agent that disrupts microtubules; upon drug removal, EB1 localized to the microtubule-organizing center. Immunofluorescence analysis of SW480, a colon cancer cell line that expresses only carboxyl-terminal-deleted APC unable to interact with EB1, demonstrated that EB1 remained localized to the microtubule cytoskeleton, suggesting that this pattern of subcellular distribution is not mediated by its interaction with APC. In vitro cosedimentation with taxol-stabilized microtubules demonstrated that a significant fraction of EB1 associated with microtubules. Recent studies of the yeast EB1 homologues Mal3 and Bim1p have demonstrated that both proteins localize to microtubules and are important in vivo for microtubule function. Our results demonstrate that EB1 is a novel component of the microtubule cytoskeleton in mammalian cells. Associating with the mitotic apparatus, EB1 may play a physiologic role connecting APC to cellular division, coordinating the control of normal growth and differentiation processes in the colonic epithelium.

Activation of αvβ3-Vitronectin Binding Is a Multistage Process in which Increases in Bond Strength Are Dependent on Y747 and Y759 in the Cytoplasmic Domain of β3

Integrin receptors serve as mechanical links between the cell and its structural environment. Using αvβ3 integrin expressed in K562 cells as a model system, the process by which the mechanical connection between αvβ3 and vitronectin develops was analyzed by measuring the resistance of these bonds to mechanical separation. Three distinct stages of activation, as defined by increases in the αvβ3-vitronectin binding strength, were defined by mutational, biochemical, and biomechanical analyses. Activation to the low binding strength stage 1 occurs through interaction with the vitronectin ligand and leads to the phosphorylation of Y747 in the β3 subunit. Stage 2 is characterized by a 4-fold increase in binding strength and is dependent on stage1 and the phosphorylation of Y747. Stage 3 is characterized by a further 2.5-fold increase in binding strength and is dependent on stage 2 events and the availability of Y759 for interaction with cellular proteins. The Y747F mutant blocked the transition from stage 1 to stage 2, and the Y759F blocked the transition from stage 2 to stage 3. The data suggest a model for tension-induced activation of αvβ3 integrin.

Alternatively spliced forms in the cytoplasmic domain of the human growth hormone (GH) receptor regulate its ability to generate a soluble GH-binding protein.

The mechanism underlying the generation of soluble growth hormone binding protein (GHBP) probably differs among species. In rats and mice, it involves an alternatively spliced mRNA, whereas in rabbits, it involves limited proteolysis of the membrane-bound growth hormone receptor (GHR). In humans, this latter mechanism is favored, as no transcript coding for a soluble GHR has been detected so far. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed COS-7 cells transiently expressing the full-length human (h) GHR and observed specific GH-binding activity in the cell supernatants. Concomitantly, an alternatively spliced form in the cytoplasmic domain of GHR, hGHR-tr, was isolated from several human tissues. hGHR-tr is identical in sequence to hGHR, except for a 26-bp deletion leading to a stop codon at position 280, thereby truncating 97.5% of the intracellular domain of the receptor protein. When compared with hGHR, hGHR-tr showed a significantly increased capacity to generate a soluble GHBP. Interestingly, this alternative transcript is also expressed in liver from rabbits, mice, and rats, suggesting that, in these four species, proteolysis of the corresponding truncated transmembrane GHR is a common mechanism leading to GHBP generation. These findings support the hypothesis that GHBP may at least partly result from alternative splicing of the region encoding the intracellular domain and that the absence of a cytoplasmic domain may be involved in increased release of GHBP.

Inhibition of nonsense-mediated mRNA decay by the cytoplasmic poly(A)-binding protein

The expression of a gene from transcription of the DNA into pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) over translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) into protein is constantly monitored for errors. This quality control is necessary to guarantee successful gene expression. One quality control mechanism important to this thesis is called nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD). NMD is a cellular process that eliminates mRNA transcripts harboring premature translation termination codons (PTCs). Furthermore, NMD is known to regulate certain transcripts with long 3′ UTRs. However, some mRNA transcripts are known to evade NMD. The mechanism of NMD activation has been subjected to many studies whereas NMD evasion or suppression still remains rather elusive. It has previously been shown that the cytoplasmic poly(A)-binding protein (PABPC1) is able to suppress NMD of certain transcripts. In this study I show that PABPC1 is able to suppress NMD of a long 3′ UTR-carrying reporter when tethered immediately downstream of the termination codon. I further am able to show the importance of the interaction between PABPC1 and eIF4G for NMD suppression, whereas the interaction between PABPC1 and eRF3a seems dispensable. These results indicate an involvement of efficient translation termination and potentially ribosome recycling in NMD suppression. I am able to show that if PABPC1 is too far removed from the terminating ribosome NMD is activated. After showing the importance of PABPC1 recruitment directly downstream of a terminating ribosome in NMD suppression, I am further able to demonstrate several different methods by which PABPC1 can be recruited. Fold-back of the poly(A)-tail mediated by two interacting proteins on opposite ends of a 3′ UTR manages to bring PABPC1 bound to the poly(A)-tail into close proximity of the terminating ribosome and therefore suppress NMD. Furthermore, small PAM2 peptides that are known to interact with the MLLE domain of PABPC1 are able to strongly suppress NMD initiated by either a long 3′ UTR or an EJC. I am also able to show the NMD antagonizing power of recruited PABPC1 for the known endogenous NMD target β-globin PTC39, which is responsible for the disease β-thalassemia. This shows the potential medical implications and application of suppressing NMD by recruiting PABPC1 into close proximity of a terminating ribosome.

Coordinated expression of galectin-3 and galectin-3-binding sites in malignant mammary tumors: implications for tumor metastasis

Galectin-3 is a glycan-binding protein that mediates cell-cell and/or cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions. Although galectin-3 is implicated in the progression of various types of cancers, the mechanisms by which galectin-3 enhances metastasis remain unclear. In order to elucidate the role of galectin-3 in the complex multistage process of cancer metastasis, we examined galectin-3 and galectin-3-binding site expression in a series of 82 spontaneous canine mammary tumors (CMT) and two CMT cell lines. Benign CMT tumors exhibited strong nuclear/cytoplasmic galectin-3 immunostaining, whereas malignant CMT tumors and metastases exhibited dramatically decreased galectin-3 expression with the majority of the immunostaining confined to the cytoplasm. Interestingly, intravascular tumor cells overexpressed galectin-3 regardless of their location. CMT-U27 xenografts displayed the same pattern of galectin-3 expression found in spontaneous malignant CMT. In parallel with the downregulation of galectin-3, malignant CMT displayed an overall loss of galectin-3-binding sites in the ECM and focal expression of galectin-3-binding sites mainly detected in intravascular tumor cells and endothelium. Furthermore, loss of galectin-3-binding sites was correlated with the downregulation of GLT25D1, a beta (1-O) galactosyltransferase that modifies collagen, and upregulation of stromal galectin-1. Finally, GLT25D1 mRNA expression was strikingly downregulated in malignant CMT-U27 compared with the benign cell line, and its expression was further de-creased in a galectin-3 knockdown CMT-U27 cell line. We therefore hypothesized that the loss of galectin-3-binding sites in the ECM in conjunction with the overexpression of galectin-3 in specific tumor cell subpopulations are crucial events for the development of mammary tumor metastases.

NOVEL 65 kDa RNA-BINDING PROTEIN IN SQUID PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS

A polyclonal antibody (C4), raised against the head domain of chicken myosin Va, reacted strongly towards a 65 kDa polypeptide (p65) on Western blots of extracts from squid optic lobes but did not recognize the heavy chain of squid myosin V. This peptide was not recognized by other myosin Va antibodies, nor by an antibody specific for squid myosin V. In an attempt to identify it, p65 was purified from optic lobes of Loligo plei by cationic exchange and reverse phase chromatography. Several peptide sequences were obtained by mass spectroscopy from p65 cut from sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gels. BLAST analysis and partial matching with expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from a Loligo pealei data bank indicated that p65 contains consensus signatures for the heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A/B family of RNA-binding proteins. Centrifugation of post mitochondrial extracts from optic lobes on sucrose gradients after treatment with RNase gave biochemical evidence that p65 associates with cytoplasmic RNP complexes in an RNA-dependent manner. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence studies using the C4 antibody showed partial co-labeling with an antibody against squid synaptotagmin in bands within the outer plexiform layer of the optic lobes and at the presynaptic zone of the stellate ganglion. Also, punctate labeling by the C4 antibody was observed within isolated optic lobe synaptosomes. The data indicate that p65 is a novel RNA-binding protein located to the presynaptic terminal within squid neurons and may have a role in synaptic localization of RNA and its translation or processing. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A3, a novel RNA trafficking response element-binding protein

The cis-acting response element, A2RE, which is sufficient for cytoplasmic mRNA trafficking in oligodendrocytes, binds a small group of rat brain proteins. Predominant among these is heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A2, a trans-acting factor for cytoplasmic trafficking of RNAs bearing A2RE-like sequences. We have now identified the other A2RE-binding proteins as hnRNP A1/A1(B), hnRNP B1, and four isoforms of hnRNP A3. The rat and human hnRNP A3 cDNAs have been sequenced, revealing the existence of alternatively spliced mRNAs. In Western blotting, 38-, 39-, 41 -, and 41.5-kDa components were all recognized by antibodies against a peptide in the glycine-rich region of hnRNP A3, but only the 41- and 41.5-kDa bands bound antibodies to a 15-residue N-terminal peptide encoded by an alternatively spliced part of exon 1. The identities of these four proteins were verified by Edman sequencing and mass spectral analysis of tryptic fragments generated from electrophoretically separated bands. Sequence-specific binding of bacterially expressed hnRNP A3 to A2RE has been demonstrated by biosensor and UV cross-linking electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Mutational analysis and confocal microscopy data support the hypothesis that the hnRNP A3 isoforms have a role in cytoplasmic trafficking of RNA.

Contextual binding of p120ctn to E-cadherin at the basolateral plasma membrane in polarized epithelia

E-cadherin-catenin complexes mediate cell-cell adhesion on the basolateral membrane of epithelial cells. The cytoplasmic tail of E-cadherin supports multiple protein interactions, including binding of beta-catenin at the C terminus and of p120(ctn) to the juxtamembrane domain. The temporal assembly and polarized trafficking of the complex or its individual components to the basolateral membrane are not fully understood. In Madin-Darby canine kidney cells at steady state and after treatment with cycloheximide or temperature blocks, E-cadherin and beta-catenin localized to the Golgi complex, but p120ctn was found only at the basolateral plasma membrane. We previously identified a dileucine sorting motif (Leu(586)-Leu(587), termed S1) in the juxtamembrane domain of E-cadherin and now show that it is required to target full-length E-cadherin to the basolateral membrane. Removal of S1 resulted in missorting of E-cadherin mutants (EcadDeltaS1) to the apical membrane; beta-catenin was simultaneously missorted and appeared at the apical membrane. p120(ctn) was not mistargeted with EcadDeltaS1, but could be recruited to the E-cadherin-catenin complex only at the basolateral membrane. These findings help define the temporal assembly and sorting of the E-cadherin-catenin complex and show that membrane recruitment of p120(ctn) in polarized cells is contextual and confined to the basolateral membrane.

Heterologous desensitization of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor by phorbol esters requires phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic tail at four different sites.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 stimulates glucose-induced insulin secretion by binding to a specific G protein-coupled receptor that activates the adenylyl cyclase pathway. We previously demonstrated that heterologous desensitization of the receptor by protein kinase C correlated with phosphorylation in a 33-amino acid-long segment of the receptor carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmic tail. Here, we determined that the in vivo sites of phosphorylation are four serine doublets present at positions 431/432, 441/442, 444/445, and 451/452. In vitro phosphorylation of fusion proteins containing mutant receptor C-tails, however, indicated that whereas serines at position 431/432 were good substrates for protein kinase C (PKC), serines 444/445 and 451/452 were poor substrates, and serines 441/442 were not substrates. In addition, serine 416 was phosphorylated on fusion protein but not in intact cells. This indicated that in vivo a different PKC isoform or a PKC-activated kinase may phosphorylate the receptor. The role of phosphorylation on receptor desensitization was assessed using receptor mutants expressed in COS cells or Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts. Mutation of any single serine doublet to alanines reduced the extent of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced desensitization, whereas substitution of any combination of two serine doublets suppressed it. Our data thus show that the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor can be phosphorylated in response to phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate on four different sites within the cytoplasmic tail. Furthermore, phosphorylation of at least three sites was required for desensitization, although maximal desensitization was only achieved when all four sites were phosphorylated.

Differential involvement of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors alpha and delta in fibrate and fatty-acid-mediated inductions of the gene encoding liver fatty-acid-binding protein in the liver and the small intestine.

Liver fatty-acid-binding protein (L-FABP) is a cytoplasmic polypeptide that binds with strong affinity especially to long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs). It is highly expressed in both the liver and small intestine, where it is thought to have an essential role in the control of the cellular fatty acid (FA) flux. Because expression of the gene encoding L-FABP is increased by both fibrate hypolipidaemic drugs and LCFAs, it seems to be under the control of transcription factors, termed peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), activated by fibrate or FAs. However, the precise molecular mechanism by which these regulations take place remain to be fully substantiated. Using transfection assays, we found that the different PPAR subtypes (alpha, gamma and delta) are able to mediate the up-regulation by FAs of the gene encoding L-FABP in vitro. Through analysis of LCFA- and fibrate-mediated effects on L-FABP mRNA levels in wild-type and PPARalpha-null mice, we have found that PPARalpha in the intestine does not constitute a dominant regulator of L-FABP gene expression, in contrast with what is known in the liver. Only the PPARdelta/alpha agonist GW2433 is able to up-regulate the gene encoding L-FABP in the intestine of PPARalpha-null mice. These findings demonstrate that PPARdelta can act as a fibrate/FA-activated receptor in tissues in which it is highly expressed and that L-FABP is a PPARdelta target gene in the small intestine. We propose that PPARdelta contributes to metabolic adaptation of the small intestine to changes in the lipid content of the diet.

Cathepsin X cleavage of the beta2 integrin regulates talin-binding and LFA-1 affinity in T cells.

T cell migration, essential for immune surveillance and response, is mediated by the integrin LFA-1. CatX, a cysteine carboxypeptidase, is involved in the regulation of T cell migration by interaction with LFA-1. We show that sequential cleavage of C-terminal amino acids from the β(2) cytoplasmic tail of LFA-1, by CatX, enhances binding of the adaptor protein talin to LFA-1 and triggers formation of the latter's high-affinity form. As shown by SPR analysis of peptides constituting the truncated β(2) tail, the cleavage of three C-terminal amino acids by CatX resulted in a 1.6-fold increase of talin binding. Removal of one more amino acid resulted in a 2.5-fold increase over the intact tail. CatX cleavage increased talin-binding affinity to the MD but not the MP talin-binding site on the β(2) tail. This was shown by molecular modeling of the β(2) tail/talin F3 complex to be a result of conformational changes affecting primarily the distal-binding site. Analysis of LFA-1 by conformation-specific mAb showed that CatX modulates LFA-1 affinity, promoting formation of high-affinity from intermediate-affinity LFA-1 but not the initial activation of LFA-1 from a bent to extended form. CatX post-translational modifications may thus represent a mechanism of LFA-1 fine-tuning that enables the trafficking of T cells.

Access of extracellular cations to their binding sites in Na,K-ATPase: role of the second extracellular loop of the alpha subunit.

Na,K-ATPase, the main active transport system for monovalent cations in animal cells, is responsible for maintaining Na(+) and K(+) gradients across the plasma membrane. During its transport cycle it binds three cytoplasmic Na(+) ions and releases them on the extracellular side of the membrane, and then binds two extracellular K(+) ions and releases them into the cytoplasm. The fourth, fifth, and sixth transmembrane helices of the alpha subunit of Na,K-ATPase are known to be involved in Na(+) and K(+) binding sites, but the gating mechanisms that control the access of these ions to their binding sites are not yet fully understood. We have focused on the second extracellular loop linking transmembrane segments 3 and 4 and attempted to determine its role in gating. We replaced 13 residues of this loop in the rat alpha1 subunit, from E314 to G326, by cysteine, and then studied the function of these mutants using electrophysiological techniques. We analyzed the results using a structural model obtained by homology with SERCA, and ab initio calculations for the second extracellular loop. Four mutants were markedly modified by the sulfhydryl reagent MTSET, and we investigated them in detail. The substituted cysteines were more readily accessible to MTSET in the E1 conformation for the Y315C, W317C, and I322C mutants. Mutations or derivatization of the substituted cysteines in the second extracellular loop resulted in major increases in the apparent affinity for extracellular K(+), and this was associated with a reduction in the maximum activity. The changes produced by the E314C mutation were reversed by MTSET treatment. In the W317C and I322C mutants, MTSET also induced a moderate shift of the E1/E2 equilibrium towards the E1(Na) conformation under Na/Na exchange conditions. These findings indicate that the second extracellular loop must be functionally linked to the gating mechanism that controls the access of K(+) to its binding site.

Localization of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) and N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) in cells expressing the Ca(2+)-binding proteins calbindin, calretinin, and parvalbumin in the adult rat hippocampus.

The N-acylethanolamines (NAEs), oleoylethanolamide (OEA) and palmithylethanolamide (PEA) are known to be endogenous ligands of PPARα receptors, and their presence requires the activation of a specific phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) associated with intracellular Ca(2+) fluxes. Thus, the identification of a specific population of NAPE-PLD/PPARα-containing neurons that express selective Ca(2+)-binding proteins (CaBPs) may provide a neuroanatomical basis to better understand the PPARα system in the brain. For this purpose, we used double-label immunofluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy for the characterization of the co-existence of NAPE-PLD/PPARα and the CaBPs calbindin D28k, calretinin and parvalbumin in the rat hippocampus. PPARα expression was specifically localized in the cell nucleus and, occasionally, in the cytoplasm of the principal cells (dentate granular and CA pyramidal cells) and some non-principal cells of the hippocampus. PPARα was expressed in the calbindin-containing cells of the granular cell layer of the dentate gyrus (DG) and the SP of CA1. These principal PPARα(+)/calbindin(+) cells were closely surrounded by NAPE-PLD(+) fiber varicosities. No pyramidal PPARα(+)/calbindin(+) cells were detected in CA3. Most cells containing parvalbumin expressed both NAPE-PLD and PPARα in the principal layers of the DG and CA1/3. A small number of cells containing PPARα and calretinin was found along the hippocampus. Scattered NAPE-PLD(+)/calretinin(+) cells were specifically detected in CA3. NAPE-PLD(+) puncta surrounded the calretinin(+) cells localized in the principal cells of the DG and CA1. The identification of the hippocampal subpopulations of NAPE-PLD/PPARα-containing neurons that express selective CaBPs should be considered when analyzing the role of NAEs/PPARα-signaling system in the regulation of hippocampal functions.

Binding of Lassa virus perturbs extracellular matrix-induced signal transduction via dystroglycan.

The arenavirus Lassa virus (LASV) causes a severe haemorrhagic fever with high mortality in man. The cellular receptor for LASV is dystroglycan (DG). DG is a ubiquitous receptor for extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, which cooperates with β1 integrins to control cell-matrix interactions. Here, we investigated whether LASV binding to DG triggers signal transduction, mimicking the natural ligands. Engagement of DG by LASV resulted in the recruitment of the adaptor protein Grb2 and the protein kinase MEK1 by the cytoplasmic domain of DG without activating the MEK/ERK pathway, indicating assembly of an inactive signalling complex. LASV binding to cells however affected the activation of the MEK/ERK pathway via α6β1 integrins. The virus-induced perturbation of α6β1 integrin signalling critically depended on high-affinity LASV binding to DG and DG's cytoplasmic domain, indicating that LASV-receptor binding perturbed signalling cross-talk between DG and β1 integrins.