入侵植物紫茎泽兰遗传变异及克隆多样性研究

现存植被与其花粉分布的关系可作为利用化石花粉图谱重建古植被时的参照，因此，理解现存表土花粉分布格局对解释花粉图谱十分关键。提高花粉鉴定精度是孢粉学和古生态学家一直努力想要解决的关键问题。目前的孢粉学方法将表土花粉鉴定到属的水平都十分困难，因此造成依据花粉图谱进行植被重建的时候出现无法矫正的误差。本研究用分子生物学方法将藜科植物表土花粉鉴定精度从科的水平提高到种的水平。表土花粉样品取自新疆中部样带，利用样带内所有出现的藜科植物共19个种建立藜科植物核基因内转录间隔1区（ITS1）序列库，然后通过巢式聚合酶链式反应（PCR）进行单粒表土花粉的ITS1序列扩增和测序，与序列库中的序列进行比对，从而确定单粒花粉来自哪种藜科植物。这种相对简单的以PCR为基础的方法可以将表土花粉鉴定到种，使在种的水平解释植被与花粉分布的关系成为可能。 紫茎泽兰（Eupatorium adenophorum）是广泛分布在中国西南的入侵植物。以无融合生殖为主，其压条性克隆繁殖方式经常被忽视，本文以紫茎泽兰为例，研究无融合生殖和压条性克隆繁殖为主的入侵种群遗传变异与克隆多样性，分析无融合生殖入侵种群具有高度竞争力和适应能力的分子机制。实验用AFLP分子标记检测了包括缅甸一个种群在内的17个种群的基因组多样性，结果表明，紫茎泽兰是多克隆植物，有丰富的基因型数量，遗传多样性水平低（He＝0.0439），大部分（73.59%）遗传变异存在于种群内，种群间存在显著遗传分化。紫茎泽兰克隆生长策略为游击型，倒伏性克隆繁殖有助于小范围内种群的扩张。各种群基因型组成存在很大差异，但基因型间相似性很高，有相当多的基因型可能来自遗传重组。紫茎泽兰的有性繁殖比例可能比以往所推测的高得多，有助于保持基因型的多样性。

外来入侵种紫茎泽兰竞争策略与扩散动态

紫茎泽兰（Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.）作为重要的外来入侵种之一，已严重破坏了入侵地生态系统的结构与功能，同时使当地农林业生产蒙受巨大的损失。因此，明确紫茎泽兰的竞争策略与扩散潜力，对制定合理的控制措施具有重要意义。 土壤氮素增加常常有助于外来种的入侵，那么降氮能否抵制入侵呢？向土壤中添加碳素，增强微生物对氮素的吸收，从而降低土壤中可被植物吸收的氮素是目前常用的降氮方法。为检验这一假说对入侵种紫茎泽兰的适用性，选取入侵种紫茎泽兰和本地种禾本科雀麦（Bromus japonicus）、菊科鱼眼草（Dichrocephala integrifolia），分别单栽或与紫茎泽兰混栽，向各植物组合中添加碳素（按1650克有机质/平方米计）或氮素（按30克氮素/平方米计），并设立对照进行盆栽实验。在碳素添加条件下，紫茎泽兰地上与地下生物量分别比对照降低了71.9% 和 74.9%，而本地种的生物量却没有受到显著影响。同时，碳素添加导致紫茎泽兰对本地种的竞争强度（RII）明显下降。氮素添加则减弱或逆转了上述碳素的作用。因此，向土壤中添加碳素有助于抵抗氮沉降对外来种入侵的促进作用，特别对抵御那些与氮素有亲和力的入侵种更为有效。在不同氮素条件下，紫茎泽兰对本地种竞争中，资源竞争强度均明显大于化感作用。尽管在紫茎泽兰发育早期化感作用较小，但是，碳素添加使紫茎泽兰可利用氮素减少，激发了化感作用在竞争中占有更大的比例，说明资源竞争与化感是相互结合、共同发挥作用的。 去叶作为模拟采食方法之一，至少可以通过两种方式影响植物竞争。一是去叶对目标种生长产生负面影响，二是邻种去叶有利于目标种生长，进而改变种间竞争关系。基于以上假定，对紫茎泽兰与相邻本地种分别单栽、同种合栽和异种混栽，进行去叶处理。结果恰与假定相悖：在整个生长季内，去叶增加目标株生物量的1.0 – 198.9%。对于入侵种而言，当邻居本地种去叶时，紫茎泽兰能完全弥补竞争产生的负面效应，即它与未去叶的单栽紫茎泽兰生长无显著差异;而紫茎泽兰去叶降低了相邻本地种的生长，加剧了原本由于竞争给对本地种带来的负面影响。因此，去叶效应与邻种的存在与否及邻种的类型均有关。在应用生物控制对目标株采食时，特别是在没有造成严重伤害或致死情况下，可以使本来具有竞争优势的入侵种变得更具强势。竞争与去叶之间存在复杂的相互作用，采食带来的间接效应可能比预想的更为复杂。因此，在生物控制措施实施之前，充分地估计生物控制的间接作用至关重要。 为检验反应—扩散模型（reaction–diffusion model）能否正确模拟紫茎泽兰小尺度扩散速率，本研究调查了四川攀枝花山区5个不同的生境的紫茎泽兰群落。对各样地内紫茎泽兰定位和年龄确定，基于克里金插值法做出其入侵格局的等年线图，通过等年线之间的垂直距离即可得到紫茎泽兰扩散速率的经验值。同时，计算内禀增长率和扩散系数，根据模型计算得到扩散速率的预测值。结果表明：紫茎泽兰扩散速率经验值明显小于模型预测值。因此，尽管反应—扩散模型已在大尺度扩散预测方面得到广泛的应用和验证，但在小尺度上，由于没有借助于复杂的生活史模型和分层模型，单凭反应—扩散模型不足以得到准确的预测。另外，在没有遭受干扰的生境中，可以发现紫茎泽兰扩散早期存在明显的时滞期。倘若这种时滞效应在入侵扩散中是频繁发生的，那么在判定物种是否具有入侵性时，很可能由于物种处于时滞期而被误认为非入侵种。 基于紫茎泽兰入侵至中国60年来所收集到的441已知分布记录和23个环境变量，采用GARP模型对其潜在分布范围做出了预测，并通过Kappa和ROC（receiver–operator characteristic）对预测结果进行检验。结果表明紫茎泽兰目前分布以云贵高原为主体，逐渐向四川盆地东部、山东半岛、东南沿海、台湾沿海以及海南岛等地扩散。冷季降水量、年极端低温和年均最高温对分布影响较大。RDA（Redundancy Analysis）分析结果显示温度和降水是限制紫茎泽兰扩散的重要因素。在过去的20年里，紫茎泽兰已经从温度较高、天气波动较小的亚热带气候逐渐向气候温凉、降水减少的高海拔地区扩散。紫茎泽兰可以适应相对较宽的温度和降水梯度，年均温度在10—22 ˚C，年降水量在800—2000 mm区间均有分布。本研究结果为发展早期预警工作、防止紫茎泽兰在中国进一步入侵提供了科学依据。

外来种紫茎泽兰对入侵地土壤动物群落及多样性的影响

在云南省澜沧县对草地、以紫茎泽兰群落以及次生林地中的土壤动物一步甲和蚯蚓群落进行动态取样调查，来探讨紫茎泽兰入侵后对群落结构、生物多样性的影响。 在紫茎泽兰和草地群落中共捕获2253头步甲，35个种，其中草地上捕获1574头步甲，28个种，紫茎泽兰样地中有679头步甲，34个种;紫茎泽兰群落中步甲个体数量少，但物种数多，多样性也比较高;草地中步甲优势物种为Harpalus indicus和Tetragonoderus arcuatus占总数的59％;而紫茎泽兰中的优势物种比较分散;紫茎泽兰群落中步甲个体体型较大，而草地中体型小的步甲所占比例较高;步甲分布与落叶层厚度、土壤全磷含量、植被高度、地上生物量及土壤pH和土壤全钾含量有一定的相关性;紫茎泽兰群落与草地中的指示物种也不同，Hyphaereon masumotoi和Cosmodiscus sp．是紫茎泽兰的指示物种，而草地的指示物种有Aephnidius adelioides，Tetragonoderus arcuatus，Harpalus indicus，Harpaliscus birmanicus，Chlaenius cambodiensi。 受紫茎泽兰入侵的林地边缘步甲群落的分布规律表明，步甲个体数量排序：林地内部>紫茎泽兰群落>林地边缘：三者步甲优势种的组成，既有交叉也有区别;三者的步甲物种数及多样性指数差异不显著，步甲群落的时间动态也相似;林地边缘、内部及紫茎泽兰群落在步甲个体体型结构上差异不大，具有指示作用的步甲种少。 在草地、紫茎泽兰及次生林地三种植被类型中，共采集到3546条蚯蚓，8个种。其中，紫茎泽兰群落有1663条蚯蚓，远高于次生林及草地。多裂远盲蚓和娇小远盲蚓是当地蚯蚓群落的优势种;紫茎泽兰入侵地的蚯蚓物种数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数大于草地及次生林地;蚯蚓数量及生物量的时间动态受月份降雨量的影响很大，体型大小不同的蚯蚓受降雨变化影响的程度不同：蚯蚓的分布与落叶层厚度、土壤全氮含量、土壤pH及有机质含量相关性较强;蚯蚓群落中只有大唇远盲蚓是紫茎泽兰样地中的指示物种。 在紫茎泽兰控制实验样地内，步甲的数量及物种数的排序是原始紫茎泽兰>半密度紫茎泽兰>去除处理。优势物种都为Anisodactylus karennius，所占比例高，其在原始紫茎泽兰群落中的分布数量远高于半密度及去除样地;步甲群落多样性指数(H’)和物种数差异不显著;三种处理的步甲群落时间动态不同，表现出不同的高峰期;Galeritula feoe和Nanodiodes piceus是原始和半密度紫茎泽兰样地中的指示物种。 总之，紫茎泽兰入侵相对单一草地后，会引起步甲个体数量下降，物种数和多样性上升，群落结构发生很大变化;紫茎泽兰入侵的林地边缘及外部草地后，林地边缘的环境变化幅度减小，林地的边际效应趋于不明显;紫茎泽兰单优群落有利于蚯蚓生存于生活，与草地及林地相比，能增加蚯蚓鲜重及多样性水平。

紫茎泽兰入侵的生态学研究

存在明显的季节性干旱的实验地的自然生境（无遮荫不补水处理）对于1年生紫茎泽兰来说具有胁迫作用，而对于本地草本植物群落来说，这样的季节性干旱并不存在胁迫作用;在单层遮荫不补水的处理中，紫茎泽兰具有竞争优势，而单层遮荫补水处理对紫茎泽兰的竞争不利。在双层遮荫补水的处理中，紫茎泽兰表现出对本地植物较大的相对竞争优势，但双层覆盖对于二者的生长均构成了较严重的胁迫。 在无覆盖不补水的处理中，紫茎泽兰定居期的死亡率最高，而定居后的生长指标（平均高和平均单株干重）在补水和不补水条件之间没有明显差异;在双层覆盖条件下，紫茎泽兰存活率在补水和不补水条件下，绝对值都较高，而平均单株干重在补水和不补水条件下都比较低;在单层覆盖条件下，紫茎泽兰存活率在补水和不补水条件下都较高，紫茎泽兰的平均高和平均单株干重在不补水处理都显著高于补水处理，而且明显高于其他不覆盖、双层覆盖的补水和不补水处理。说明在实验地的自然生境中，本地群落对紫茎泽兰早期（侵入定居）具有一定的抵抗力，但在这样的生境中的本地植物群落对紫茎泽兰的后期（定居之后）的发展的抵抗力较低;双层覆盖条件（相当于郁闭度高的林下生境）对紫茎泽兰的早期侵入定居虽然抵抗力较差，但是对紫茎泽兰的后期（定居之后）的发展具有较强的抑制作用;单层覆盖条件（相当于受到人畜干扰的郁闭度较低的林下生境）下，本地群落对紫茎泽兰早期侵入定居和后期（定居之后）的发展抵抗力都很低，这一结果提醒我们，紫茎泽兰易于侵入受到过人为干扰的郁闭度较低的林下生境并产生严重危害。 刈割干扰对紫茎泽兰的入侵具有明显的促进作用，高强度刈割的促进作用主要体现在促进紫茎泽兰的个体生长速度和群体生物量上，但低强度刈割的促进作用主要体现在入侵定居的个体数量和群体生物量上。低强度刈割处理中的紫茎泽兰的密度为高强度刈割处理的5倍，单位面积上的紫茎泽兰的生物量最高，达到高强度刈割处理的2.5倍，可见对于紫茎泽兰的入侵而言，低强度的刈割干扰比高强度刈割干扰具有更大的促进作用。 本地植物雀麦、豆科植物、鱼眼草和香薷在与紫茎泽兰混栽后，它们的根际土壤微生物群落结构与紫茎泽兰根际土壤微生物相似性更高，而偏相关分析结果表明，豆科植物和鱼眼草的根际土壤微生物群落结构的变化与它们的生物量生长具有一定的关联性，而对于雀麦和香薷的根际土壤微生物群落结构的变化与它们的生物量生长的关联性不明显，说明紫茎泽兰入侵本地植物群落后可以对生态系统的土壤微生物群落结构造成较大的影响，而微生物的改变并不是对所有的本地植物来说都是非常严峻的。虽然我们实验中的4种本地植物中只有2种本地植物的生长表现出与其根际土壤微生物变化的显著相关性，但这对于本地植物群落已经是非常严重的威胁。

紫茎泽兰精油各馏份对4种仓库害虫的杀虫活性

：用紫撬泽兰精油的20℃～150。C，150℃一200℃，20．0℃，230℃．230屯。300℃和300℃以上馏协，分剐以 稚．簦嘴，L的熏蒸浓爰楚理米象、玉采象、簿豆象牵蚕熹象，螬幕表磷凄5争犍静中，娃15。℃～200℃馏傍转荣虫活性 最高，其洗是20℃一150℃和200℃～230气馏份，而300℃以上馏份的杀虫活性靛低。进一步的生测结装表明．150屯一 200℃增傍对米象、玉来氧、绿黛象和善豆象24h的l(葡分莉为15 5li4，17．8124，培．0302和16．2671mg／Lo

泽兰实蝇的生态学特性及对紫茎泽兰的控制作用

紫茎泽兰(Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng)是一种原产于墨西哥的恶性杂草。近年来已严重妨碍了云南省甚至整个西南地区、林、牧业的发展。自1984年8月引进泽兰实蝇(procecidochares utilis Stone)开展了生物防治研究。已在云南境内七个地州（市）定殖扩散。为了解泽兰实蝇的控制作用，本文从研究泽从实蝇生态学特性入手。分析了泽兰实蝇生态学特性与紫茎泽兰生物防治的关系。定量地评价了泽兰实蝇的控制作用。并且应用灰色系统中局势决策方法比较了不同环境条件下的生防效果。其主要结果如下：1、泽兰实蝇雌性与雄性成虫的存活曲线均近于Deevery I型；雌雄一并来看。则成虫存活曲线为Deevery II型；雌性成虫的寿命比雄性长。产卵峰期多在产卵开始后的第二到第四天。2、泽兰实蝇幼虫与成虫均存在密度制约。在平均每雌占有两枝供试产卵枝条时产卵量最大。同时孕育虫的后代也最多。3、泽兰实蝇的净增殖率R. = 24.365。内禀增长率r_m = 0.055。周限增长值λ = 1.057。种群加倍时间t = 12.603天，世代周期T = 58.371天。4、泽兰实蝇幼虫种群的空间分布呈聚集型且接近于负二项分布。一般来说平均拥挤度大的地区，对紫茎泽兰的控制效果也好。5、利用计算机模拟术对泽兰实蝇的控制作用进行拟合。较之以寄生率来评价生防效果更为科学，也更为符合客观实际。6、对不同环境下的控制作用进行局势决策可知，温度较高。湿度偏低的地区。生防效果优于那些温度较低或温、温度均较高的地区。在本文所进行调查的几个样地中，泽兰实蝇控制效果大小的次序依次为：元江＞宜良＞双柏＞思茅。

Enraizamento de plantas cultivadas in vitro

The adventitious rooting process of in vitro cultured plantlets is a technique that has been employed for the vegetative propagation of a significant number of native and exotic species. Many factors are associated with the rooting stage influencing positive and/or negatively the establishment of micropropagation protocols. The objective of this work was a literature review of the main inherent factors concerning in vitro rooting process including the correlation among others the endogenous and exogenous auxins levels, juvenility, genotype, mineral nutrition, culture medium conditions, addition of growth regulators and other substances as phenolic compounds and active coal besides growth environmental conditions of in vitro cultures. Although the complete elucidation of all processes involved with rooting of in vitro cultured plants has not been achieved so far, a comprehensive study of the main factors that interfere on rooting is fundamental for the establishment of new researches that might contribute for the rooting of economically important plants.

Optimising weed control by considering disturbance

Mounting scientific evidence suggests newly imposed disturbance and/or alterations to existing disturbances facilitate invasion. Several empirical studies have explored the role of disturbance in invasion, but little work has been done to fit current understanding into a format useful for practical control efforts. We are working towards addressing this shortcoming by developing a metapopulation model couched in a decision theory framework. This approach has allowed us to investigate how incorporating the negative effects of disturbance on native vegetation into decision-making can change optimal control measures. In this paper, we present some preliminary results.

Genetic structure of invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus in Australia and Pakistan

Understanding the patterns of genetic structure in the introduced range of invasive species can help elucidate invasion histories and levels of gene flow among populations. Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.; PW) is native to the Gulf of Mexico and central South America but has become globally invasive during the last three decades and little is known about the genetics of this species in its invasive range. The present study was conducted to determine the genetic structure of 95 individual samples from 11 populations (9 from Pakistan and 2 from Australia) of PW using ISSR fingerprinting. A total of 30 ISSR primers were screened; of which eight were selected due to their high polymorphism and reproducibility. In toto 147 bands were amplified, which ranged in size from 200-2000 bp; among which 97 were polymorphic. Genetic diversity within the populations both from Pakistan and Australia ranged between 0.193-0.278. Approximately 18% of genetic variation occurred among and 82% within populations. Principal Coordinate Analysis showed that within the 95 samples two groups were present: one contained samples collected mainly from Pakistan and the second group included the Australian samples along with two populations from Pakistan. Overall, there was limited gene flow among PW populations in Pakistan, although the genetic diversity within populations was high. The degree of genetic variation inferred from various population diversity measures can predict different events of founding populations, which have passed through complicated processes of invasion, experiencing genetic bottlenecks. Taken together, results showed that PW in Pakistan is genetically heterogeneous and may have been the result of multiple introductions.

A Bayesian Framework for the Assessment of Vision-based Weed and Fruit Detection and Classification Algorithms

This paper proposes new metrics and a performance-assessment framework for vision-based weed and fruit detection and classification algorithms. In order to compare algorithms, and make a decision on which one to use fora particular application, it is necessary to take into account that the performance obtained in a series of tests is subject to uncertainty. Such characterisation of uncertainty seems not to be captured by the performance metrics currently reported in the literature. Therefore, we pose the problem as a general problem of scientific inference, which arises out of incomplete information, and propose as a metric of performance the(posterior) predictive probabilities that the algorithms will provide a correct outcome for target and background detection. We detail the framework through which these predicted probabilities can be obtained, which is Bayesian in nature. As an illustration example, we apply the framework to the assessment of performance of four algorithms that could potentially be used in the detection of capsicums (peppers).

Extent of dense native woodland and exotic weed infestation in the extensive grazing lands of the Upper Herbert and Upper Burdekin River Catchments of far north Queensland: results of a producer survey

The Mt Garnet Landcare Group commissioned a survey of landholders within the Upper Herbert and Upper Burdekin River Catchments to assess the density of native woodlands and to gauge the extent of exotic weed infestation. Twenty-four of 49 landholders responded, representing an area of nearly 500 000 ha or 47% of the total area. Dense native woodland covers 24% (>117 000 ha) of the area surveyed, while a further 30% (140 000 ha) supports moderately dense stands. The dense stands are largely confined to the highly fertile alluvial soils (26% dense woodland) and the lower fertility sandy-surfaced soils (33% or >96 000 ha). Moderate and dense infestations of exotic weeds, principally Lantana camara, occur on 54% (20 000 ha) of alluvial soils and on 13% of sandy-surfaced soils (39 000 ha), where praxelis (Praxelis clematidia) is the major weed. Basaltic soils have low levels of both dense woodland and exotic weed infestation. Some implications of the results are discussed.

Simulating crop-parasitic weed interactions using APSIM: Model evaluation and application

The parasitic weed Orobanche crenata inflicts major damage on faba bean, lentil, pea and other crops in Mediterranean environments. The development of methods to control O. crenata is to a large extent hampered by the complexity of host-parasite systems. Using a model of host-parasite interactions can help to explain and understand this intricacy. This paper reports on the evaluation and application of a model simulating host-parasite competition as affected by environment and management that was implemented in the framework of the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM). Model-predicted faba bean and O. crenata growth and development were evaluated against independent data. The APSIM-Fababean and -Parasite modules displayed a good capability to reproduce effects of pedoclimatic conditions, faba bean sowing date and O. crenata infestation on host-parasite competition. The r(2) values throughout exceeded 0.84 (RMSD: 5.36 days) for phenological, 0.85 (RMSD: 223.00 g m(-2)) for host growth and 0.78 (RMSD: 99.82 g m(-2)) for parasite growth parameters. Inaccuracies of simulated faba bean root growth that caused some bias of predicted parasite number and host yield loss may be dealt with by more flexibly simulating vertical root distribution. The model was applied in simulation experiments to determine optimum sowing windows for infected and non-infected faba bean in Mediterranean environments. Simulation results proved realistic and testified to the capability of APSIM to contribute to the development of tactical approaches in parasitic weed control.

An analysis of assessment outcomes from eight years' operation of the Australian border weed risk assessment system

The majority of Australian weeds are exotic plant species that were intentionally introduced for a variety of horticultural and agricultural purposes. A border weed risk assessment system (WRA) was implemented in 1997 in order to reduce the high economic costs and massive environmental damage associated with introducing serious weeds. We review the behaviour of this system with regard to eight years of data collected from the assessment of species proposed for importation or held within genetic resource centres in Australia. From a taxonomic perspective, species from the Chenopodiaceae and Poaceae were most likely to be rejected and those from the Arecaceae and Flacourtiaceae were most likely to be accepted. Dendrogram analysis and classification and regression tree (TREE) models were also used to analyse the data. The latter revealed that a small subset of the 35 variables assessed was highly associated with the outcome of the original assessment. The TREE model examining all of the data contained just five variables: unintentional human dispersal, congeneric weed, weed elsewhere, tolerates or benefits from mutilation, cultivation or fire, and reproduction by vegetative propagation. It gave the same outcome as the full WRA model for 71% of species. Weed elsewhere was not the first splitting variable in this model, indicating that the WRA has a capacity for capturing species that have no history of weediness. A reduced TREE model (in which human-mediated variables had been removed) contained four variables: broad climate suitability, reproduction in less or than equal to 1 year, self-fertilisation, and tolerates and benefits from mutilation, cultivation or fire. It yielded the same outcome as the full WRA model for 65% of species. Data inconsistencies and the relative importance of questions are discussed, with some recommendations made for improving the use of the system.

The suitability of non-target native mangroves for the survival and development of the lantana bug Aconophora compressa, an introduced weed biological control agent

Aconophora compressa (Hemiptera: Membracidae), a biological control agent introduced against the weed Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) in Australia, has since been observed on several non-target plant species, including native mangrove Avicennia marina (Acanthaceae). In this study we evaluated the suitability of two native mangroves, A. marina and Aegiceras corniculatum (Myrsinaceae), for the survival and development of A. compressa through no-choice field cage studies. The longevity of females was significantly higher on L. camara (57.7 ± 3.8 days) than on A. marina (43.3 ± 3.3 days) and A. corniculatum (45.7 ± 3.8 days). The proportion of females laying eggs was highest on L. camara (72%) followed by A. marina (36%) and A. corniculatum (17%). More egg batches per female were laid on L. camara than on A. marina and A. corniculatum. Though more nymphs per shoot emerged on L. camara (29.9 ± 2.8) than on A. marina (13 ± 4.8) and A. corniculatum (10 ± 5.3), the number of nymphs that developed through to adults was not significantly different. The duration of nymphal development was longer on A. marina (67 ± 5.8 days) than on L. camara (48 ± 4 days) and A. corniculatum (43 ± 4.6 days). The results, which are in contrast to those from previous glasshouse and quarantine trials, provide evidence that A. compressa adults can survive, lay eggs and complete nymphal development on the two non-target native mangroves in the field under no-choice condition.