A method for the in-situ determination of the hydraulic conductivity of gravels as used in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment

A new instrument and method are described that allow the hydraulic conductivities of highly permeable porous materials, such as gravels in constructed wetlands, to be determined in the field. The instrument consists of a Mariotte siphon and a submersible permeameter cell with manometer take-off tubes, to recreate in-situ the constant head permeameter test typically used with excavated samples. It allows permeability to be measured at different depths and positions over the wetland. Repeatability obtained at fixed positions was good (normalised standard deviation of 1–4%), and results obtained for highly homogenous silica sand compared well when the sand was retested in a lab permeameter (0.32 mm.s–1 and 0.31 mm.s–1 respectively). Practical results have a ±30% associated degree of uncertainty because of the mixed effect of natural variation in gravel core profiles, and interstitial clogging disruption during insertion of the tube into the gravel. This error is small, however, compared to the orders of magnitude spatial variations detected. The technique was used to survey the hydraulic conductivity profile of two constructed wetlands in the UK, aged 1 and 15 years respectively. Measured values were high (up to 900 mm.s –1) and varied by three orders of magnitude, reflecting the immaturity of the wetland. Detailed profiling of the younger system suggested the existence of preferential flow paths at a depth of 200 mm, corresponding to the transition between more coarse and less coarse gravel layers (6–12 mm and 3–6 mm respectively), and transverse drift towards the outlet.

Nitrogen removal and sustainability of vertical flow constructed wetlands for small scale wastewater treatment

The challenge for wastewater professionals is to design and operate treatment processes that support human well being and are environmentally sensitive throughout the life-cycle. This research focuses on one technology for small-scale wastewater treatment: the vertical flow constructed wetland (VFCW), which is herein investigated for the capacity to remove ammonium and nitrate nitrogen from wastewater. Hydraulic regime and presence/absence of vegetation are the basis for a three-phase bench scale experiment to determine oxygen transfer and nitrogen fate in VFCWs. Results show that 90% NH4+-N removal is achieved in aerobic downflow columns, 60% NO3--N removal occurs in anaerobic upflow columns, and 60% removal of total nitrogen can be achieved in downflow-upflow in-series. The experimental results are studied further using a variably saturated flow and reactive transport model, which allows a mechanistic explanation of the fate and transport of oxygen and nitrogen. The model clarifies the mechanisms of oxygen transport and nitrogen consumption, and clarifies the need for readily biodegradable COD for denitrification. A VFCW is then compared to a horizontal flow constructed wetland (HFCW) for life cycle environmental impacts. High areal emissions of greenhouse gases from VFCWs compared to HFCWs are the driver for the study. The assessment shows that because a VFCW is only 25% of the volume of an HFCW designed for the same treatment quality, the VFCW has only 25-30% of HFCW impacts over 12 impact categories and 3 damage categories. Results show that impacts could be reduced by design improvements. Design recommendations are downflow wetlands for nitrification, upflow wetlands for denitrification, series wetlands for total nitrogen removal, hydraulic load of 142 L/m2d, 30 cm downflow wetland depth, 1.0 m upflow wetland depth, recycle, vegetation and medium-grained sand. These improvements will optimize nitrogen removal, minimize gaseous emissions, and reduce wetland material requirements, thus reducing environmental impact without sacrificing wastewater treatment quality.

Role of hydraulic factors in constructed wetland and bioretention basin treatment performance

This research project contributed to the in-depth understanding of the influence of hydrologic and hydraulic factors on the stormwater treatment performance of constructed wetlands and bioretention basins in the "real world". The project was based on the comprehensive monitoring of a Water Sensitive Urban Design treatment train in the field and underpinned by complex multivariate statistical analysis. The project outcomes revealed that the reduction in pollutant concentrations were consistent in the constructed wetland, but was highly variable in the bioretention basin to a range of influential factors. However, due to the significant amount retention within the filter media, all pollutant loadings were reduced in the bioretention basin.

Sectional analysis of stormwater treatment performance of a constructed wetland

Constructed wetlands are among the most common Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) measures for stormwater treatment. These systems have been extensively studied to understand their performance and influential treatment processes. Unfortunately, most past studies have been undertaken considering a wetland system as a lumped system with a primary focus on the reduction of the event mean concentration (EMC) values of specific pollutant species or total pollutant load removal. This research study adopted an innovative approach by partitioning the inflow runoff hydrograph and then investigating treatment performance in each partition and their relationships with a range of hydraulic factors. The study outcomes confirmed that influenced by rainfall characteristics, the constructed wetland displays different treatment characteristics for the initial and later sectors of the runoff hydrograph. The treatment of small rainfall events (<15 mm) is comparatively better at the beginning of runoff events while the trends in pollutant load reductions for large rainfall events (>15 mm) are generally lower at the beginning and gradually increase towards the end of rainfall events. This highlights the importance of ensuring that the inflow into a constructed wetland has low turbulence in order to achieve consistent treatment performance for both, small and large rainfall events.

Enzymatic activities in constructed wetlands and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) biodegradation

The bioaccumulation of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) from industrial products and their mutagenic action has been suggested to be a potential threat to human health. The effects of the most frequently identified PAE, Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), and its biodegradation, were examined by comparison of two small scale plots (SSP) of integrated vertical-flow constructed wetlands. The influent DBP concentration was 9.84 mg l(-1) in the treatment plot and the control plot received no DBP. Soil enzymatic activities of dehydrogenase, catalase, protease, phosphatase, urease, cellulase, beta-glucosidase, were measured in the two SSP after DBP application for 1 month and 2 months, and 1 month after the final application. Both treatment and control had significantly higher enzyme activity in the surface soil than in the subsurface soil (P < 0.001) and greater enzyme activity in the down-flow chamber than in the up-flow chamber (P < 0.05). In the constructed wetlands, DBP enhanced the activities of dehydrogenase, catalase, protease, phosphatase and inhibited the activities of urease, cellulase and beta-glucosidase. However, urease, cellulase, beta-glucosidase activities were restored 1 month following the final DBP addition. Degradation of DBP was greater in the surface soil and was reduced in sterile soil, indicating that this process may be mediated by aerobic microorgansims. DBP degradation fitted a first-order model, and the kinetic equation showed that the rate constant was 0.50 and 0.17 d(-1), the half-life was 1.39 and 4.02 d, and the r(2) was 0.99 and 0.98, in surface and subsurface soil, respectively. These results indicate that constructed wetlands are able to biodegrade organic PA-Es such as DBP. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Efficiency of constructed wetlands in decontamination of water polluted by heavy metals

A twin-shaped constructed wetland (CW) comprising a vertical flow (inflow) chamber with Cyperus alternifolius followed by a reverse-vertical flow (outflow) chamber with Villarsia exaltata was assessed for decontamination of artificial wastewater polluted by heavy metals. After application of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn over 150 days, together with Al and Mn during the final 114 days, no heavy metals with the exception of Mn could be detected in either the drainage zone at the bottom, shared by both chambers, or in the effluent. The inflow chamber was, therefore, seen to be predominantly responsible for the decontamination process of more toxic metal species with final concentrations far below WHO drinking-water standards. About one-third of the applied Cu and Mn was absorbed, predominantly by lateral roots of C. alternifolius. Lower accumulation levels were observed for Zn (5%), Cd (6%), Al (13%). and Pb (14%). Contents of Cd, Cu, Mn, and Zn in soil were highest in top layer, while Al and Pb were evenly distributed through the whole soil column. Metal species accumulating mainly in the top layer can be removed mechanically. A vertical flow CW with C. alternifolius is an effective tool in phytoremediation for treatment of water polluted with heavy metals. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

EDSS-maintenance prototype: an environmental decision support system to assess the definition of operation and maintenance protocols for horizontal subsurface constructed wetlands

Els Sistemes d'Aiguamolls Construïts (SAC) de Flux Subsuperficial Horitzontal (FSH) és una tecnologia apropiada pel sanejament d'aigües residuals procedents de nuclis de població petits. No obstant els SAC de FSH són considerats una tecnologia natural, l'operació i manteniment d'aquestes depuradores és crucial per a garantir el seu correcte funcionament. Aquestes necessitats d'operació i manteniment varien entre depuradores segons (1) les característiques de la comunitat, (2) la configuració de la depuradora i el disseny del SAC de FSH i (3) les característiques del medi receptor. En aquest sentit, en aquesta tesi es presenta el desenvolupament d'un Sistema d'Ajuda a la Decisió (SAD) per a la definició de protocols d'operació i manteniment per a SAC de FSH tenint en compte els factors que causen variabilitat entre aquest tipus de depuradores (1, 2 i 3).

Use of the HDS system (hydric depuration with soils) associated to other constructed wetlands techniques for public water supply

Two projects of water treatment for public water supply were developed and operated by using combined systems of constructed wetlands. One of the projects was carried out in the town of Analandia, Sao Paulo, Brazil and wetlands with floating aquatic plants associated to the HDS system were used. Nearly 6480 inhabitants were supplied. The other conducted project was an experimental station in partnership with SABESP (Sao Paulo State Sanitation Agency/Brazil), for the pretreatment of 1700 l.s-1 of waters from the Cotia River, which is used for the population's supply after conventional treatment at the Lower Cotia Water Treatment Station. For this pilot project, wetlands with emergents and floating plants associated to the HDS system were used. The proposed objectives were achieved in both projects.

Performance characterisation of a constructed wetland

Performance of a constructed wetland is commonly reported as variable due to the site specific nature of influential factors. This paper discusses outcomes from an in-depth study which characterised treatment performance of a wetland based on the variation in runoff regime. The study included a comprehensive field monitoring of a well established constructed wetland in Gold Coast, Australia. Samples collected at the inlet and outlet was tested for Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP). Pollutant concentrations in the outflow were found to be consistent irrespective of the variation in inflow water quality. The analysis revealed two different treatment characteristics for events with different rainfall depths. TSS and TN load reduction is strongly influenced by hydraulic retention time where performance is higher for rainfall events below the design event. For small events, treatment performance is higher at the beginning of the event and gradually decreased during the course of the event. For large events, the treatment performance is comparatively poor at the beginning and improved during the course of the event. The analysis also confirmed the variable treatment trends for different pollutant types.

Estudo experimental de wetlands construídos como unidade de polimento no tratamento de lixiviados de aterros sanitários.

A grande quantidade de resíduos sólidos gerados nas cidades é um desafio para o saneamento ambiental no Brasil. A fim de se reduzir os impactos gerados ao meio ambiente e à saúde pública, é necessário que haja um gerenciamento adequado, desde a coleta até a disposição final, desses resíduos sólidos urbanos. Os aterros sanitários permitem um maior controle ambiental, desde que sejam bem projetados e operados. A decomposição da matéria orgânica presente nesses resíduos, somada às águas das chuvas gera o lixiviado, líquido com alto potencial poluidor. Várias formas de tratamento são propostas com a finalidade de tornar o lixiviado menos poluente ao meio ambiente. Wetlands construídos tem se mostrado uma alternativa eficiente para a remoção de poluentes em lixiviados, além dos baixos custos operacionais e de implantação. O presente estudo investigou o uso de wetlands subsuperficiais em escala-piloto para o tratamento de um lixiviado prétratado. Os wetlands foram monitorados com a finalidade de se obter remoções de matéria orgânica e nitrogênio amoniacal. As maiores reduções percentuais de concentração de nitrogênio amoniacal, DQO e COD foram, 91%, 42% e 35%, respectivamente. As maiores reduções percentuais em carga de nitrogênio amoniacal e DQO foram, 67% e 50%, respectivamente. Os resultados dos ensaios de toxicidade realizados com os organismos Vibrio fischeri e Danio rerio revelaram que, a toxicidade do lixiviado foi reduzida ao ser tratado pelo wetland.

Characteristics of the microbial communities in the integrated vertical-flow constructed wetlands

Microorganisms play an important role in removing pollutants from constructed wetlands. We investigated the microbial characteristics in a novel integrated vertical-flow constructed wetland (IVCW), which has been in operation in Wuhan, China since 1998. We used phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) and amoA gene to analyze the structure and diversity of the microbial community within the IVCW. PLFA results suggested that the amount of bacterial PLFA was significantly higher than that of fungal PLFA, but the total microbial biomass represented by PLFA index was low in the system. Microbial spatial distribution showed significantly higher bacterial (both G(+) and G(-)) and fungal biomass in the surface than in the subsurface layers. The ratios of monounsaturated to branched PLFA demonstrated that an anaerobic layer sandwiched by two aerobic layers existed in the IVCW, consistent with the redox potential results. Analysis of the amoA revealed the presence of Nitrosomonas-like sequences in the surface substrate of the downflow chamber and apparent diversities of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in the system. These results suggest that microorganisms, despite their relatively low biomass, have inhabited the IVCW, and the results will offer some valuable information on microbe to system designers and managers.

Effects of Cd2+ and Pb2+ on the substrate biofilms in the integrated vertical-flow constructed wetland

The effects of single Cd2+ and Pb2+, and combined Cd2+ and Pb2+ on dehydrogenase activity and polysaccharide content of the substrate biofilms in the integrated vertical-flow constructed wetland (IVCW) were studied. Dehydrogenase activities decreased linearly with the increasing concentrations of Cd2+ and Pb2+ at different times (6, 24, 72, and 120 h). The activities at both 6 and 24 h were significantly higher than that at 72 and 120 h in the case of single and combined treatments. The single Cd2+ and Pb2+ treatments significantly inhibited dehydrogenase activities at concentrations in excess of 20 mu mol/L Cd2+ and 80 mu mol/L Pb2+, respectively. The inhibitory effect of Cd2+ was much greater than that of Pb2+. At the same time, the combined treatment of Cd2+ and Pb2+ Significantly inhibited dehydrogenase activities at all five concentrations studied and the lowest combined concentration was 1.25 mu mol/L Cd2+ and 5 mu mol/L Pb2+. A synergistic effect of Cd2+ and Pb2+ was observed. On the other hand, polysaccharide contents varied unpredictably with the increasing concentrations of Cd2+ and Pb2+ and extended experimental time. There were no significant statistical differences within the range of concentration and time studied, whether singly or in combination. These results implied that the effects of heavy metals on biofilms should be a concern for the operation and maintenance of constructed wetlands.

Root zone microbial populations, urease activities, and purification efficiency for a constructed wetland

In order to investigate the effects of microorganisms and their urease activities in macrophytic root zones on pollutant removal, four small-scale plots (SSPs) of vertical/reverse-vertical flow wetlands were set up to determine: a) the relationship between the abundance of microorganisms in the root zones and water purification efficiency; and b) the relationship between urease activities in the root zones and pollutant removal in a constructed wetland system. Total numbers of the microbial population (bacteria, fungi, and actinomyces) along with urease activities in the macrophytic root zones were determined. In addition, the relationships between microbial populations and urease activities as well as the wastewater purification efficiencies of total phosphorus (TP), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), biochemical oxygen demand in 5 days (BOD5), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were also analyzed. The results showed that there was a highly significant positive correlation (r = 0.9772, P < 0.01) between the number of bacteria in the root zones and BOD5 removal efficiency and a significant negative correlation (r = -0.9092, P < 0.05) between the number of fungi and the removal efficiency of TKN. Meanwhile, there was a significant positive correlation (r = 0.8830, P < 0.05) between urease activities in the root zones and the removal efficiency of TKN. Thus, during wastewater treatment in a constructed wetland system, microorganism and urease activities in the root zones were very important factors.