Improving Portland Cement Concrete Mix Consistency and Production Rate through Two-Stage Mixing, TR-505, 2007

A two-stage mixing process for concrete involves mixing a slurry of cementitious materials and water, then adding the slurry to coarse and fine aggregate to form concrete. Some research has indicated that this process might facilitate dispersion of cementitious materials and improve cement hydration, the characteristics of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregate and paste, and concrete homogeneity. The goal of the study was to find optimal mixing procedures for production of a homogeneous and workable mixture and quality concrete using a two-stage mixing operation. The specific objectives of the study are as follows: (1) To achieve optimal mixing energy and time for a homogeneous cementitious material, (2) To characterize the homogeneity and flow property of the pastes, (3) To investigate effective methods for coating aggregate particles with cement slurry, (4) To study the effect of the two-stage mixing procedure on concrete properties, (5) To obtain the improved production rates. Parameters measured for Phase I included: heat of hydration, maturity, and rheology tests were performed on the fresh paste samples, and compressive strength, degree of hydration, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging tests were conducted on the cured specimens. For Phases II and III tests included slump and air content on fresh concrete and compressive and tensile strengths, rapid air void analysis, and rapid chloride permeability on hardened concrete.

Investigation into Freezing-Thawing Durability of Low-Permeability Concrete with and without Air Entraining Agent, 2009

The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of low-permeability concrete, made with reduced water‐to‐binder ratios (w/b) and/or supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), on the need for air entrainment to achieve freezing‐thawing (F‐T) durability. In the present study, concrete mixes were made with different types of cement (Types I and IP), with or without fly ash replacement (15%), with different water‐to‐binder ratios (w/b =0.25, 0.35, 0.45 and 0.55), and with or without air entraining agent (AEA). All concrete mixtures were controlled to have a similar slump by using different dosages of superplasticizer. The rapid chloride permeability and F-T durability of the concrete samples were determined according to ASTM C1202 and ASTM C666A, respectively. The air void structure of the concrete was studied using the Air Void Analyzer, RapidAir, and porosity tests (ASTM C642). In addition, the general concrete properties, such as slump, air content, unit weight, and 28‐day compressive strength, were evaluated. The results indicate that all concrete mixes with proper air entrainment (ASTM C231 air content ≥ 6%) showed good F‐T resistance (durability factor ≥85%). All concrete mixes without AEA showed poor F‐T resistance (durability factor < 40%), except for one mix that had very low permeability and high strength. This was the concrete made with Type IP cement and with a w/b of 0.25, which had a permeability of 520 coulombs and a compressive strength of 12,760 psi (88 MPa). There were clear relationships between the F‐T durability and hardened concrete properties of non–air entrained concrete. However, such relationships did not exist in concrete with AEA. For concrete with AEA, good F‐T durability was associated with an air void spacing factor ≤ 0.28 mm (by AVA) or ≤ 0.22 mm (by RapidAir).

The Effect of low-grade aggregates on the abrasion resistance of concrete

Three types of crushed rock aggregate were appraised, these being Carboniferous Sandstone, Magnesian Limestone and Jurassic Limestone. A comprehensive aggregate testing programme assessed the properties of these materials. Two series of specimen slabs were cast and power finished using recognised site procedures to assess firstly the influence of these aggregates as the coarse fraction, and secondly as the fine fraction. Each specimen slab was tested at 28 days under three regimes to simulate 2-body abrasion, 3-body abrasion and the effect of water on the abrasion of concrete. The abrasion resistance was measured using a recognised accelerated abrasion testing apparatus employing rotating steel wheels. Relationships between the aggregate and concrete properties and the abrasion resistance have been developed with the following properties being particularly important - Los Angeles Abrasion and grading of the coarse aggregate, hardness of the fine aggregate and water-cement ratio of the concrete. The sole use of cube strength as a measure of abrasion resistance has been shown to be unreliable by this work. A graphical method for predicting the potential abrasion resistance of concrete using various aggregate and concrete properties has been proposed. The effect of varying the proportion of low-grade aggregate in the mix has also been investigated. Possible mechanisms involved during abrasion have been discussed, including localised crushing and failure of the aggregate/paste bond. Aggregates from each of the groups were found to satisfy current specifications for direct finished concrete floors. This work strengthens the case for the increased use of low-grade aggregates in the future.

Modelação e reforço de vigas de betão armado com laminados de fibra de carbono

Com o atual estado da construção em Portugal, a reabilitação urbana é uma realidade. Com muitos dos edifícios a necessitarem de reforço, procurou-se abordar o comportamento real das estruturas, indo além da típica análise linear elástica. Desta forma, pretendeu-se aumentar o conhecimento acerca da modelação numérica não-linear de estruturas de betão armado, expondo modelos de cálculo relativamente simples e de fácil compreensão, com o objetivo de servir de base a uma avaliação da capacidade de carga de um elemento estrutural. O modelo de cálculo foi validado com recurso ao trabalho experimental de Bresler e Scordelis (1963). Analisou-se o comportamento até à rotura de três vigas ensaiadas à flexão. Posteriormente, foi realizado um estudo paramétrico de algumas propriedades do betão com vista à discussão do melhor de ajuste. Em seguida, já no campo do reforço estrutural, simulou-se numericamente vigas reforçadas com CFRP, com recurso à técnica EBR e NSM. Comparam-se os resultados numéricos com os ensaios experimentais de Cruz et al. (2011a). Avaliou-se ainda o desempenho de soluções alternativas com variações na área e comprimento dos laminados. Para finalizar, foi desenvolvida uma campanha experimental com diferentes áreas de reforço. Conceberam-se e executaram-se três vigas de betão armado sobre as quais se instalaram laminados de CFRP. Os resultados experimentais são apresentados e discutidos à luz dos resultados do respetivo modelo numérico. No cômputo geral, o presente trabalho permitiu aferir a validade de modelos não-lineares na previsão do comportamento efetivo das estruturas até à rotura. Assinala-se a concordância em vários resultados experimentais analisados. Ficaram também patentes os principais fenómenos ligados ao reforço de vigas com CFRP, focados nos respetivos modelos de cálculo e nos resultados experimentais apresentados.

Investigation into Improved Pavement Curing Materials and Techniques: Part 2 - Phase III, March 2003

Appropriate curing is important for concrete to obtain the designed properties. This research was conducted to evaluate the curing effects of different curing materials and methods on pavement properties. At present the sprayed curing compound is a common used method for pavement and other concrete structure construction. Three curing compounds were selected for testing. Two different application rates were employed for the white-pigmented liquid curing compounds. The concrete properties of temperature, moisture content, conductivity, and permeability were examined at several test locations. It was found, in this project, that the concrete properties varied with the depth. Of the tests conducted (maturity, sorptivity, permeability, and conductivity), conductivity appears to be the best method to evaluate the curing effects in the field and bears potential for field application. The results indicated that currently approved curing materials in Iowa, when spread uniformly in a single or double application, provide adequate curing protection and meet the goals of the Iowa Department of Transportation. Experimental curing methods can be compared to this method through the use of conductivity testing to determine their application in the field.

Investgiation into Improved Pavement Curing Materials and Techniques: Part 1 - Phases I and II, April 2002

Concrete curing is closely related to cement hydration, microstructure development, and concrete performance. Application of a liquid membrane-forming curing compound is among the most widely used curing methods for concrete pavements and bridge decks. Curing compounds are economical, easy to apply, and maintenance free. However, limited research has been done to investigate the effectiveness of different curing compounds and their application technologies. No reliable standard testing method is available to evaluate the effectiveness of curing, especially of the field concrete curing. The present research investigates the effects of curing compound materials and application technologies on concrete properties, especially on the properties of surface concrete. This report presents a literature review of curing technology, with an emphasis on curing compounds, and the experimental results from the first part of this research—lab investigation. In the lab investigation, three curing compounds were selected and applied to mortar specimens at three different times after casting. Two application methods, single- and double-layer applications, were employed. Moisture content, conductivity, sorptivity, and degree of hydration were measured at different depths of the specimens. Flexural and compressive strength of the specimens were also tested. Statistical analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between these material properties. The research results indicate that application of a curing compound significantly increased moisture content and degree of cement hydration and reduced sorptivity of the near-surface-area concrete. For given concrete materials and mix proportions, optimal application time of curing compounds depended primarily upon the weather condition. If a sufficient amount of a high-efficiency-index curing compound was uniformly applied, no double-layer application was necessary. Among all test methods applied, the sorptivity test is the most sensitive one to provide good indication for the subtle changes in microstructure of the near-surface-area concrete caused by different curing materials and application methods. Sorptivity measurement has a close relation with moisture content and degree of hydration. The research results have established a baseline for and provided insight into the further development of testing procedures for evaluation of curing compounds in field. Recommendations are provided for further field study.

Materials and Mix Optimization Procedures for PCC Pavements, March 2006

Severe environmental conditions, coupled with the routine use of deicing chemicals and increasing traffic volume, tend to place extreme demands on portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements. In most instances, engineers have been able to specify and build PCC pavements that met these challenges. However, there have also been reports of premature deterioration that could not be specifically attributed to a single cause. Modern concrete mixtures have evolved to become very complex chemical systems. The complexity can be attributed to both the number of ingredients used in any given mixture and the various types and sources of the ingredients supplied to any given project. Local environmental conditions can also influence the outcome of paving projects. This research project investigated important variables that impact the homogeneity and rheology of concrete mixtures. The project consisted of a field study and a laboratory study. The field study collected information from six different projects in Iowa. The information that was collected during the field study documented cementitious material properties, plastic concrete properties, and hardened concrete properties. The laboratory study was used to develop baseline mixture variability information for the field study. It also investigated plastic concrete properties using various new devices to evaluate rheology and mixing efficiency. In addition, the lab study evaluated a strategy for the optimization of mortar and concrete mixtures containing supplementary cementitious materials. The results of the field studies indicated that the quality management concrete (QMC) mixtures being placed in the state generally exhibited good uniformity and good to excellent workability. Hardened concrete properties (compressive strength and hardened air content) were also satisfactory. The uniformity of the raw cementitious materials that were used on the projects could not be monitored as closely as was desired by the investigators; however, the information that was gathered indicated that the bulk chemical composition of most materials streams was reasonably uniform. Specific minerals phases in the cementitious materials were less uniform than the bulk chemical composition. The results of the laboratory study indicated that ternary mixtures show significant promise for improving the performance of concrete mixtures. The lab study also verified the results from prior projects that have indicated that bassanite is typically the major sulfate phase that is present in Iowa cements. This causes the cements to exhibit premature stiffening problems (false set) in laboratory testing. Fly ash helps to reduce the impact of premature stiffening because it behaves like a low-range water reducer in most instances. The premature stiffening problem can also be alleviated by increasing the water–cement ratio of the mixture and providing a remix cycle for the mixture.

Evaluation of Metakaolin for HPC Deck Overlays, MLR-11-01, 2011

The use of High Performance Concrete (HPC) in Iowa has consisted of achieving slightly higher compressive strengths with an emphasis on reduced permeability. Concrete with reduced permeability has increased durability by slowing moisture and chloride ingress. Achieving reduced permeability has typically been accomplished with combinations of slag and Class C fly ash, or the use of blended cements such as locally available Type IS(20), IS(25) and Type IP(25) in conjunction with Class C fly ash. Fly ash has been used in the majority of concrete placed in Iowa since 1984 and slag has been available in Iowa since 1995. During the economic downturn in 2008, one of the cement plants that produced a Type IS(25) cement was forced to shut down, which reduced the availability of blended cements, typically used on HPC deck overlays. Recently, a source of high reactivity metakaolin has been made available. Metakaolin is produced by heating a pure kaolinite clay to 650 to 700 °C in a rotary kiln (calcining). Metakaolin is a white pozzolan that is used to produce concrete with increased strengths, reduced permeability, reduced efflorescence, and resistance to alkali silica reactivity. The W.R. Grace MK-100 metakaolin will likely be available in dissolvable bags between 25 and 50 pounds. Thus, the mix designs were based on the anticipated bag size range for field use. This research evaluated metakaolin mixes with and without Class C fly ash. Results indicated a seven percent replacement with metakaolin produced concrete with increased strengths and low permeability. When used with Class C fly ash, permeability is reduced to very low rating. Metakaolin may be used to enhance hardened concrete properties for use in high performance concrete (HPC).

Efeitos do tratamento superficial da sílica ativa com soluções de ácidos nítrico e fosfórico em propriedades do concreto

The addition of active silica potentially improves the quality of concrete due to its high reactivity and pore refinement effect. The reactivity of silica is likely related to its charge density. Variations in surface charge alter the reactivity of the material consequently affecting the properties of concrete. The present study aimed at investigating variations in the charge density of silica as a function of acid treatments using nitric or phosphoric acid and different pH values (2.0, 4.0 and 6.0). Effects on concrete properties including slump, mechanical strength, permeability and chloride corrosion were evaluated. To that end, a statistical analysis was carried out and empirical models that correlate studied parameters (pH, acid and cement) with concrete properties were established. The quality of the models was tested by variance analysis. The results revealed that the addition of silica was efficiency in improving the properties of concrete, especially the electrochemical parameters. The addition of silica treated using nitric acid at pH = 4.0 displayed the best cement performance including highest strength, reduced permeability and lowest corrosion current

Development and applications of three-dimensional gamma ray tomography system using ray casting volume rendering techniques

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Embedded crack elements with non-uniform discontinuity modes

The consequences of the use of embedded crack finite elements with uniform discontinuity modes (opening and sliding) to simulate crack propagation in concrete are investigated. It is shown the circumstances in which the consideration of uniform discontinuity modes is not suitable to accurately model the kinematics induced by the crack and must be avoided. It is also proposed a technique to embed cracks with non-uniform discontinuity modes into standard displacement-based finite elements to overcome the shortcomings of the uniform discontinuity modes approach.

Avaliação de propriedades mecânicas de peças pré-moldadas submetidas à cura térmica pelo método da maturidade: estudo de caso

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Performance estimation for concretes made with recycled aggregates of construction and demolition waste of some Brazilian cities

The aim of this paper is to verify the influence of composition variability of recycled aggregates (RA) of construction and demolition wastes (CDW) on the performance of concretes. Performance was evaluated building mathematical models for compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and drying shrinkage. To obtain such models, an experimental program comprising 50 concrete mixtures was carried out. Specimens were casted, tested and results for compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and drying shrinkage were statistically analyzed. Models inputs are CDW composition observed at seven Brazilian cities. Results confirm that using RA from CDW for concrete building is quite feasible, independently of its composition, once compressive strength and modulus of elasticity still reached considerable values. We concluded the variability presented by recycled aggregates of CDW does not compromise their use for concrete building. However, this information must be used with caution, and experimental tests should always be performed to certify concrete properties.

Caratterizzazione meccanica di calcestruzzi fibrorinforzati con fibre d'acciaio

L’utilizzo di materiali compositi come i calcestruzzi fibrorinforzati sta diventando sempre più frequente e diffuso. Tuttavia la scelta di nuovi materiali richiede una approfondita analisi delle loro caratteristiche e dei loro comportamenti. I vantaggi forniti dall’aggiunta di fibre d’acciaio ad un materiale fragile, quale il calcestruzzo, sono legati al miglioramento della duttilità e all'aumento di assorbimento di energia. L’aggiunta di fibre permette quindi di migliorare il comportamento strutturale del composito, dando vita ad un nuovo materiale capace di lavorare non solo a compressione ma anche in piccola parte a trazione, ma soprattutto caratterizzato da una discreta duttilità ed una buona capacità plastica. Questa tesi ha avuto come fine l’analisi delle caratteristiche di questi compositi cementizi fibrorinforzati. Partendo da prove sperimentali classiche quali prove di trazione e compressione, si è arrivati alla caratterizzazione di questi materiali avvalendosi di una campagna sperimentale basata sull’applicazione della norma UNI 11039/2003. L’obiettivo principale di questo lavoro consiste nell’analizzare e nel confrontare calcestruzzi rinforzati con fibre di due diverse lunghezze e in diversi dosaggi. Studiando questi calcestruzzi si è cercato di comprendere meglio questi materiali e trovare un riscontro pratico ai comportamenti descritti in teorie ormai diffuse e consolidate. La comparazione dei risultati dei test condotti ha permesso di mettere in luce differenze tra i materiali rinforzati con l’aggiunta di fibre corte rispetto a quelli con fibre lunghe, ma ha anche permesso di mostrare e sottolineare le analogie che caratterizzano questi materiali fibrorinforzati. Sono stati affrontati inoltre gli aspetti legati alle fasi della costituzione di questi materiali sia da un punto di vista teorico sia da un punto di vista pratico. Infine è stato sviluppato un modello analitico basato sulla definizione di specifici diagrammi tensione-deformazione; i risultati di questo modello sono quindi stati confrontati con i dati sperimentali ottenuti in laboratorio.