Pseudoautotomy in Dendrophidion dendrophis and Mastigodryas bifossatus (Serpentes: Colubridae): Tail Morphology and breakage frequency

The micro and macro structures of the caudal vertebrae and muscles of Dendrophidion dendrophis and Mastigodryas bifossatus were described using histological slides, dissections, radiographs, and clearing and double staining of intact, broken, and healed tails. To analyze the relationship among the frequencies of healed tails we established two populations of D. dendrophis and six groups of M. bifossatus. We found that fractures of the tail in the two species are intervertebral, and there are no morphological and/or structural mechanisms that facilitate the urotomy, which is classified as non-specialized pseudoautotomy. The caudal vertebrae of D. dendrophis and M. bifossatus show minor differences in the shape of the condyle, cotyle, and border of the neural spine, and in the size and orientation of the hemapophysis and pleurapophysis. The absence of bleeding at the moment of tail breakage may indicate the presence of sphincters in the veins and arteries of D. dendrophis. The distal part of the last vertebrae retained in healed tails of D. dendrophis and M. bifossatus participates in the healing processes as a possible source of calcium in the formation of a calcified cap. We found high frequency of tail breakage in both species, which occurs in almost the entire length of the tail, with no specific areas of concentration. There was no difference in the frequencies of healed tails among males and females of different populations of D. dendrophis and M. bifossatus. Juveniles have lower breakage frequencies than adults in both species, except for populations of M. bifossatus from the Cerrado and Pampa. © 2013 by the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.

Ecomorfologia e uso de recursos das espécies de Chironius (Serpentes, Colubridae) na Serra do Mar

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Análise da variação morfológica de Dipsas catesbyi (Sentzen, 1796) e Dipsas pavonina Schlegel, 1837 (Serpentes: Colubridae: Dipsadinae)

A subfamília Dipsadinae engloba 22 gêneros da fauna de colubrídeos neotropicais e 24 outros considerados incertae sedis, mas com caracteres comuns aos dipsadíneos. Os gêneros Dipsas, Sibon, Sibynomorphus e Tropidodipsas formalmente compõem a tribo Dipsadini a qual é considerado um grupo monofilético bem fundamentado. A tribo é caracterizada por serpentes que apresentam um alto grau de especialização morfológica, relacionado ao modo de alimentação e adaptações ao hábitat em que vivem. O gênero Dipsas inclui aproximadamente 32 espécies, distribuídas do México até a América do Sul, é constituído por serpentes de corpo delgado e alongado, com cabeça curta e proeminente, olhos grandes, pupilas verticais e ausência de sulco mentoniano. As espécies são notavelmente variáveis na coloração, número de escamas e outros caracteres morfológicos. Essa extrema variação tem dificultado a definição dos limites entre as espécies e a interpretação de padrões de variação geográfica. A grande variação morfológica dos caracteres presentes nas espécies D. catesbyi e D. pavonina, associada à dificuldade de identificação dos táxons e à escassez de informações sobre as suas distribuições geográficas, justificam a necessidade de uma análise mais detalhada destas espécies. Para tal, o presente estudo foi dividido em dois capítulos. O primeiro capítulo corresponde à análise da variação individual, sexual e geográfica de D. catesbyi e D. pavonina, e a comparação dos caracteres morfológicos entre as duas espécies. O segundo corresponde à análise da macroestrutura das glândulas cefálicas nestas duas espécies, relacionando-as com outros táxons de Dipsadinae.

Biologia reprodutiva e alimentar de Liophis reginae semilineatus (Wagler,18424) e Liophis taeniogaster jan, 1863 (Serpentes, Colubridae, Xenodontinae) da Amazônia oriental, Brasil

O presente trabalho trata de um estudo detalhado sobre a biologia reprodutiva e alimentar de Liophis reginae semilineatus e Liophis taeniogaster, de populações restritas a Amazônia Oriental, através da análise de dimorfismo sexual, maturidade sexual, ciclo reprodutivo, fecundidade, composição da dieta e relações presa-predador. As duas espécies são simpátricas, porém não foram realizadas comparações entre ambas, devido a distância filogenética (Moura-Leite, 2001), por apresentarem diferenças quanto aos recursos alimentares e microhábitats freqüentados (Cunha & Nascimento, 1993), sendo apresentadas em dois capítulos distintos, o primeiro tratando da biologia reprodutiva e alimentar de Liophis reginae semilineatus e o segundo capítulo tratando da biologia reprodutiva e alimentar de Liophis taeniogaster.

Revisão taxonômica de Liophis typhlus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Serpentes: Colubridae)

Liophis typhlus (Linnaeus, 1758) é uma espécie de distribuição restrita à América do Sul, sendo reconhecida três subespécies: Liophis typhlus typhlus encontrada nas florestas tropicais ao longo da bacia Amazônica, nos seguintes países: Equador, Bolívia, Colômbia, Peru a Leste dos Andes, Norte e Leste da Venezuela, Guianas e Brasil; Liophis typhlus brachyurus presente na Mata Atlântica do Sudeste e nos cerrados do Centro-oeste brasileiros e no Paraguai; e Liophis typhlus elaeoides presente na bacia do Rio Paraguai, incluindo os Chacos do Sudeste da Bolívia, Norte do Paraguai e Centro-Oeste do Brasil. Com o objetivo de revisar taxonomicamente Liophis typhlus foram analisados 16 caracteres morfométricos e 19 merísticos de 240 espécimes. A osteologia craniana e a morfologia hemipeniana foram analisadas de forma comparativa entre os táxons. Foram identificadas diferenças sexuais significativas, utilizando o teste t. Foram realizadas Análises de Função Discriminante entre os espécimes dos táxons estudados, com o intuito de analisar se, de maneira multivariada, as amostras são diferentes entre si e quais as variáveis que estariam contribuindo para esta separação, a Análise de Variância (MANOVA) foi utilizada entre os táxons, para verificar diferenças significativas entre eles. Foi evidenciada diferença significativa entre machos e fêmeas dos exemplares de L. t. elaeoides, com relação à VE, em L. t. typhlus foram evidenciadas diferenças significativas com relação a seis caracteres (CT, CCA, LCA, LFR, CMA e VE). Os resultados das análises da Função Discriminante indicaram uma clara distinção, num espaço multivariado, entre os três táxons estudados. O padrão de coloração, a morfologia hemipeniana e craniana foram importantes na diagnose das espécies. A distribuição de L. typhlus, parece estar restrita ao domínio Amazônico, tendo seu limite setentrional no norte do Mato- Grosso próximo à área de transição Amazônia-Cerrado. L. rachyurus está mais associado ao domínio Cerrado, porém ocorre em áreas de Mata Atlântica, Caatinga e Pantnal. L. elaeoides possui uma área de distribuição mais restrita associada ao Chaco e Pantanal, contudo sua distribuição foi ampliada, com análise de dois exemplares procedentes do Rio Grande do Sul. Não foi possível verificar as relações filogenéticas entre as espécies L. brachyurus, L. elaeoides e L. typhlus com as demais espécies do gênero.

Geographical variation in the reproduction and sexual dimorphism of the Boddaert's tropical racer, Mastigodryas boddaerti (Serpentes: Colubridae)

We obtained data on time of sexual maturity, dimorphism, fecundity and on the reproductive cycle of Mastigodryas boddaerti (Sentzen, 1796) through the examination of 321 preserved specimens, of which 221 were collected in the Brazilian Amazon region and 100 in the Cerrado savannas of Central Brazil. The degree of sexual size dimorphism (snout-vent length, SVL) was significantly greater in the specimens from the Cerrado in comparison with those from the Amazon. Females had a significantly larger number of ventral scales, on average, whereas males had more sub-caudal scales. However, there was no intersexual difference in tail length or head width, although the heads of the males were significantly longer, which may reflect dietary differences. Breeding females from the Amazon region contained between one and six eggs (N = 12, mean = 3.0), whereas two females from the Cerrado had four to six eggs (N = 10, mean = 5.0). No relationship was found between the SVL of the Amazonian females and the number of eggs or vitellogenic follicles they contained (Cerrado females were not analyzed here due to small sample size). Males are smaller than their female counterpart when they reach sexual maturity. Even though females from the Amazon reproduce throughout the year, females from the Cerrado breed seasonality.

Feeding ecology of Liophis reginae semilineatus (Serpentes: Colubridae: Xenodontinae) in eastern Amazon, Brazil

We studied the diet of Liophis reginae semilineatus (Wagler, 1824) from eastern Amazon, Brazil, based on the analysis of 182 preserved specimens. Thirty-six individuals had prey in their stomachs; 34 (95%) contained exclusively anurans and 2 (5%) contained both anurans and lizards. The most common prey items were small Leptodactylus sp. (33.3%), followed by Physalaemus ephippifer (Steindachner, 1864) (10.3%). Prey ingested head-first (78%; n = 25) were significantly larger than prey ingested tail-first (22%; n = 7). Females of L. reginae semilineatus have longer and wider heads than conspecific males with the same body length, which correspond to sexual divergences in the diet (size of the prey). No correlation was found between snake head length vs. prey size (SVL, width and mass). Liophis reginae semilineatus is an anurophagous snake that probably forages actively on the ground.

Potential Economic Damage From Introduction of Brown Tree Snakes, Boiga Irregularis (Reptilia: Colubridae), to The Islands Of Hawai‘i

The Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis) has caused ecological and economic damage to Guam, and the snake has the potential to colonize other islands in the Pacific Ocean. This study quantifies the potential economic damage if the snake were translocated, established in the state of Hawaii, and causing damage at levels similar to those on Guam. Damages modeled included costs of medical treatments due to snakebites, snake-caused power outages, and decreased tourism resulting from effects of the snake. Damage caused by presence of the Brown Tree Snake on Guam was used as a guide to estimate potential economic damage to Hawaii from both medical- and power outage–related damage. To predict tourism impact, a survey was administered to Hawaiian tourists that identified tourist responses to potential effects of the Brown Tree Snake. These results were then used in an input-output model to predict damage to the state economy. Summing these damages resulted in an estimated total potential annual damage to Hawaii of between $593 million and $2.14 billion. This economic analysis provides a range of potential damages that policy makers can use in evaluation of future prevention and control programs.

团花锦蛇、绿锦蛇和三索锦蛇的核型及Ag-NORs

报道了锦蛇属团花锦蛇( E. davidi) 、绿锦蛇( E. prasina) 和三索锦蛇( E. radiata) 3 个种的核型和Ag - NORs ,团花锦蛇的核型2 n = 36 (8V + 6sV + 2I + 20M) ;绿锦蛇的核型2 n = 36 (7V + 7sV + 2I + 20m) ,三索锦蛇的 核型2 n = 40 (6V + 3sV + 2sI + 5I + 24m) ; ①团花锦蛇和绿锦蛇的染色体数目和结构与此属大多数种的相似, ; ② 此属种类的性染色体为ZW型,绿锦蛇的性染色体为第4 对大染色体,三索锦蛇的为第5 对大染色体,团花锦蛇 由于为雄性,未见染色体异型. ③Ag - NORs 在数目及在染色体上的位置均不相同,团花锦蛇的NORs 在第9 对 染色体上,数目为2 个;绿锦蛇的NORs 在第5 对染色体上,数目为4 个;三索锦蛇的NORs 在第4 对大染色体上, 数目为4 个; ④我们发现三索锦蛇较为特殊,其染色体数目、形态、性染色体的位置和形态及Ag - NORs 均与其 它种类不同. 可能的原因是此物种在核型演化过程中发生过染色体断裂和重排事件,提示三索锦蛇可能是一个 特化的类群. ⑤锦蛇属的种类可分为包括三索锦蛇为特殊的一组的4 个组. 图版1 表2 参18

东南亚及其邻近岛屿钝头蛇亚科Pareinae的谱系发育及其与地质演变的关系

钝头蛇亚科Pareinae 隶属游蛇科Colubridae分布于10°S—35°N, 80　　25 °E的东南亚及其邻近岛屿, 是具有吻钝, 无颏沟和上颌骨前端无齿等特殊性状 的唯一类群、原记载共2属16种。经核实, 该类群共有18种, 分别隶属三个属。 描述了其谱系发育及其与地质演变的关系。图6表2参23

The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence and the phylogenetic position of Achalinus meiguensis (Reptilia: Squamata)

The mitochondrial genome complete sequence of Achalinus meiguensis was reported for the first time in the present study. The complete mitochondrial genome of A. meiguensis is 17239 bp in length and contains 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA, 2 rRNA, and 2 non-coding regions (Control regions). On the basis of comparison with the other complete mitochondrial sequences reported, we explored the characteristic of structure and evolution. For example, duplication control regions independently occurred in the evolutionary history of reptiles; the pseudo-tRNA of snakes occurred in the Caenophidia; snake is shorter than other vertebrates in the length of tRNA because of the truncations of T psi C arm (less than 5 bp) and "DHU" arm. The phylogenic analysis by MP and BI analysis showed that the phylogenetic position of A. meiguensis was placed in Caenophidia as a sister group to other advanced snakes with the exclusion of Acrochordus granulatus which was rooted in the Caenophidia. Therefore we suggested that the subfamily Xenodermatinae, which contains A. meiguensis, should be raised to a family rank or higher rank. At the same time, based on the phylogenic statistic test, the tree of Bayesian was used for estimating the divergence time. The results showed that the divergence time between Henophidia and Caenophidia was 109.50 Mya; 106.18 Mya for divergence between Acrochordus granulatus and the other snakes of the Caenophidia; the divergence time of A. meiguensis was 103 Mya, and Viperidae diverged from the unilateral of Elapidae and Colubridae was 96.06 Mya.

钝头蛇亚科Pareinae的系统分类及演化

钝头蛇亚科Pareinae隶属游蛇科Colubridae，仅分布于东南亚东经80°-125°，南纬10°至北纬35°的范围内，是具有吻钝、无颏沟和上颌骨的前端无齿等特殊性状的唯一类群，原记载共2属16种。经全面分类清理后认为，该类群共有18种，分别隶属于Pareas, Aplopeltura和新属Internatus三属，并且以派生性状的多寡判定Pareas属最原始，Aplopeltura属最特化。Aplopeltura和Intenatus属可能分别源自Pareas属的某一级或不同级的祖先，可能是第四纪(Quater nary)大冰期时先后从大陆迁入马来半岛、苏门答腊、婆罗洲、爪哇和菲律宾南部，然后在间冰或冰后期因适应岛屿环境而特化成的新的类群。

Reproductive ecology of dipsadine snakes, with emphasis on South American species

A relatively large amount of variation occurs in the reproductive ecology of tropical snakes, and this variation is generally regarded as being a consequence of seasonality in climate and prey availability. In some groups, even closely related species may differ in their reproductive ecology; however, in others it seems to be very conservative. Here we explore whether characters related to reproduction are phylogenetically constrained in a monophyletic group of snakes, the subfamily Dipsadinae, which ranges from Mexico to southern South America. We provide original data on reproduction for Leptodeira annulata, Imantodes cenchoa, and three species of Sibynomorphus from southern, southeastern and central Brazil, and data from literature for other species and populations of dipsadines. Follicular cycles were seasonal in Atractus reticulatus, Dipsa, albifrons, Hypsiglena torquata, Leptodeira maculata, L. punctata, Sibynomorphus spp. and Sibon sanniola from areas where climate is seasonal. In contrast, extended or continuous follicular cycles were recorded in Dipsas catesbyi, D. neivai, Imantodes cenchoa, Leptodeira annulata, and Ninia maculata from areas with seasonal and aseasonal climates. Testicular cycles also varied from seasonal (in H. torquiata) to continuous (in Dipsa,5 spp., Leptodeira annulata, L. maculata, N. maculata, and Sibynomorphus spp.). Most dipsadines are small (less than 500 rum SVL), and females attain sexual maturity with similar relative body size than males. Sexual dimorphism occurred in terms of SVL and tail length in most species, and clutch size tended to be small (less than five eggs). Combat behavior occurs in Imantodes cenchoa, which did not show sexual size dimorphism. Reproductive timing, for both females and males, varied among species but in general there were no differences between the tribes of Dipsadinae in most of the reproductive characteristics, such as mean body size, relative size at sexual maturity, sexual size and tail dimorphism, duration of vitellogenesis or egg-carrying in oviducts.