A CFTR chloride channel activator prevents HrpN(ea)-induced cell death in Arabidopsis thaliana suspension cells

Erwinia amylovora is a necrogenic bacterium that causes fire blight of the Maloideae subfamily of Roseacae, such as apple and pear. It provokes necrosis in aerial parts of susceptible host plants and the typical hypersensitive reaction in non-host plants. The secreted hatpin, HrpN(ea), is able by itself to induce an active cell death in non-host plants. Ion flux modulations were shown to be involved early in such processes but very few data are available on the plasma membrane ion channel activities responsible for the pathogen-induced ion fluxes. We show here that HrpNea induces cell death in non-host Arabidopsis thaliana suspension cells. We further show that two cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator modulators, glibenclamide and bromotetramisole, can regulate anion channel activities and HrpN(ea)-induced cell death. (c) 2005 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

CIC-5: A chloride channel with multiple roles in renal tubular albumin uptake

CIC-5 is a chloride (Cl-) channel expressed in renal tubules and is critical for normal tubular function. Loss of function nonsense or missense mutations in CIC-5 are associated with Dent's disease, a condition in which patients present with low molecular weight (LMW) proteinuria (including albuminuria), hypercalciuria and nephrolithiasis. Several key studies in CIC-5 knockout mice have shown that the proteinuria results from defective tubular reabsorption of proteins. CIC-5 is typically regarded as an intracellular Cl- channel and thus the defect in this receptor-mediated uptake pathway was initially attributed to the failure of the early endosomes to acidify correctly. CIC-5 was postulated to play a key role in transporting the Cl- ions required to compensate for the movement of H+ during endosomal acidification. However, more recent studies suggest additional roles for CIC-5 in the endocytosis of albumin. CIC-5 is now known to be expressed at low levels at the cell surface and appears to be a key component in the assembly of the macromolecular complex involved in protein endocytosis. Furthermore, mutations in CIC-5 affect the trafficking of v-H+-ATPase and result in decreased expression of the albumin receptor megalin/cubulin. Thus, the expression of CIC-5 at the cell surface as well as its presence in endosomes appears to be essential for normal protein uptake by the renal proximal tubule. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Volume-activated chloride channels in mice Leydig cells

Production and secretion of testosterone in Leydig cells are mainly controlled by the luteinizing hormone (LH). Biochemical evidences suggest that the activity of Cl(-) ions can modulate the steroidogenic process, but the specific ion channels involved are not known. Here, we extend the characterization of Cl(-) channels in mice Leydig cells (50-60 days old) by describing volume- activated Cl(-) currents (I(Cl,swell)). The amplitude of I(Cl,swell) is dependent on the osmotic gradient across the cell membrane, with an apparent EC(50) of similar to 75 mOsm. These currents display the typical biophysical signature of volume- activated anion channels (VRAC): dependence on intracellular ATP, outward rectification, inactivation at positive potentials, and selectivity sequence (I(-)>Cl(-)>F(-)). Staurosporine (200 nM) did not block the activation of I(Cl), swell. The block induced by 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid (NPPB; 128 mu M), SITS (200 mu M), ATP (500 mu M), pyridoxalphosphate-6- azophenyl-2`,4`-disulfonate (PPADS; 100 mu M), and Suramin (10 mu M) were described by the permeant blocker model with apparent dissociation constant at 0 mV K(d)(0) and fractional distance of the binding site (delta) of 334 mu M and 47%, 880 mu M and 35%, 2,100 mu M and 49%, 188 mu M and 27%, and 66.5 mu M and 49%, respectively. These numbers were derived from the peak value of the currents. We conclude that ICl, swell in Leydig cells are activated independently of purinergic stimulation, that Suramin and PPADS block these currents by a direct interaction with VRAC and that ATP is able to permeate this channel.

cAMP-dependent chloride secretion mediates tubule enlargement and cyst formation by cultured mammalian collecting duct cells.

Polycystic kidney diseases result from disruption of the genetically defined program that controls the size and geometry of renal tubules. Cysts which frequently arise from the collecting duct (CD) result from cell proliferation and fluid secretion. From mCCD(cl1) cells, a differentiated mouse CD cell line, we isolated a clonal subpopulation (mCCD-N21) that retains morphogenetic capacity. When grown in three-dimensional gels, mCCD-N21 cells formed highly organized tubular structures consisting of a palisade of polarized epithelial cells surrounding a cylindrical lumen. Subsequent addition of cAMP-elevating agents (forskolin or cholera toxin) or of membrane-permeable cAMP analogs (CPT-cAMP) resulted in rapid and progressive dilatation of existing tubules, leading to the formation of cystlike structures. When grown on filters, mCCD-N21 cells exhibited a high transepithelial resistance as well as aldosterone- and/or vasopressin-induced amiloride-sensitive and -insensitive current. The latter was in part inhibited by Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporter (bumetanide) and chloride channel (NPPB) inhibitors. Real-time PCR analysis confirmed the expression of NKCC1, the ubiquitous Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporter and cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) in mCCD-N21 cells. Tubule enlargement and cyst formation were prevented by inhibitors of Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporters (bumetanide or ethacrynic acid) or CFTR (NPPB or CFTR inhibitor-172). These results further support the notion that cAMP signaling plays a key role in renal cyst formation, at least in part by promoting chloride-driven fluid secretion. This new in vitro model of tubule-to-cyst conversion affords a unique opportunity for investigating the molecular mechanisms that govern the architecture of epithelial tubes, as well as for dissecting the pathophysiological processes underlying cystic kidney diseases.

TMEM16 proteins: the long awaited calcium-activated chloride channels?

Currents mediated by calcium-activated chloride channels (CaCCs), observed for the first time in Xenopus oocytes, have been recorded in many cells and tissues ranging from different types of neurons to epithelial and muscle cells. CaCCs play a role in the regulation of excitability in neurons including sensory receptors. In addition, they are crucial mediators of chloride movements in epithelial cells where their activity regulates electrolyte and fluid transport. The roles of CaCCs, particularly in epithelia, are briefly reviewed with emphasis on their function in secretory epithelia. The recent identification by three independent groups, using different strategies, of TMEM16A as the molecular counterpart of the CaCC is discussed. TMEM16A is part of a family that has 10 other members in mice. The discovery of the potential TMEM16 anion channel activity opens the way for the molecular investigation of the role of these anion channels in specific cells and in organ physiology and pathophysiology. The identification of TMEM16A protein as a CaCC chloride channel molecule represents a great triumph of scientific perseverance and ingenuity. The varied approaches used by the three independent research groups also augur well for the solidity of the discovery.

Chloride channels in myotonia congenita assessed by velocity recovery cycles

Introduction: Myotonia congenita (MC) is caused by congenital defects in the muscle chloride channel CLC-1. This study used muscle velocity recovery cycles (MVRCs) to investigate how membrane function is affected. Methods: MVRCs and responses to repetitive stimulation were compared between 18 patients with genetically confirmed MC (13 recessive, 7 dominant) and 30 age-matched normal controls. Results: MC patients exhibited increased early supernormality, but treatment with sodium channel blockers prevented this. After multiple conditioning stimuli, late supernormality was enhanced in all MC patients, indicating delayed repolarization. These abnormalities were similar between the MC subtypes, but recessive patients showed a greater drop in amplitude during repetitive stimulation. Discussion: MVRCs indicate that chloride conductance only becomes important when muscle fibers are depolarized. The differential responses to repetitive stimulation suggest that in dominant MC the affected chloride channels are activated by strong depolarization, consistent with a positive shift of the CLC-1 activation curve. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Heteromultimeric CLC chloride channels with novel properties

The skeletal muscle chloride channel CLC-1 and the ubiquitous volume-activated chloride channel CLC-2 belong to a large gene family whose members often show overlapping expression patterns. CLC-1 and CLC-2 are coexpressed in skeletal and smooth muscle and in the heart. By coexpressing CLC-1 and CLC-2 in Xenopus oocytes, we now show the formation of novel CLC-1/CLC-2 heterooligomers that yield time-independent linear chloride currents with a chloride → bromide → iodide selectivity sequence. Formation of heterooligomeric CLC channels increases the number and possible functions of chloride channels.

Chloride is an allosteric effector of copper assembly for the yeast multicopper oxidase Fet3p: An unexpected role for intracellular chloride channels

GEF1 is a gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which encodes a putative voltage-regulated chloride channel. gef1 mutants have a defect in the high-affinity iron transport system, which relies on the cell surface multicopper oxidase Fet3p. The defect is due to an inability to transfer Cu+ to apoFet3p within the secretory apparatus. We demonstrate that the insertion of Cu into apoFet3p is dependent on the presence of Cl−. Cu-loading of apoFet3p is favored at acidic pH, but in the absence of Cl− there is very little Cu-loading at any pH. Cl− has a positive allosteric effect on Cu-loading of apoFet3p. Kinetic studies suggest that Cl− may also bind to Fet3p and that Cu+ has an allosteric effect on the binding of Cl− to the enzyme. Thus, Cl− may be required for the metal loading of proteins within the secretory apparatus. These results may have implications in mammalian physiology, as mutations in human intracellular chloride channels result in disease.

Syntaxin 1A inhibits CFTR chloride channels by means of domain-specific protein–protein interactions

Previously we showed that the functional activity of the epithelial chloride channel that is encoded by the cystic fibrosis gene (CFTR) is reciprocally modulated by two components of the vesicle fusion machinery, syntaxin 1A and Munc-18. Here we report that syntaxin 1A inhibits CFTR chloride channels by means of direct and domain-specific protein–protein interactions. Syntaxin 1A stoichiometrically binds to the N-terminal cytoplasmic tail of CFTR, and this binding is blocked by Munc-18. The modulation of CFTR currents by syntaxin 1A is eliminated either by deletion of this tail or by injecting this tail as a blocking peptide into coexpressing Xenopus oocytes. The CFTR binding site on syntaxin 1A maps to the third predicted helical domain (H3) of this membrane protein. Moreover, CFTR Cl− currents are effectively inhibited by a minimal syntaxin 1A construct (i.e., the membrane-anchored H3 domain) that cannot fully substitute for wild-type syntaxin 1A in membrane fusion reactions. We also show that syntaxin 1A binds to and inhibits the activities of disease-associated mutants of CFTR, and that the chloride current activity of recombinant ΔF508 CFTR (i.e., the most common cystic fibrosis mutant) can be potentiated by disrupting its interaction with syntaxin 1A in cultured epithelial cells. Our results provide evidence for a direct physical interaction between CFTR and syntaxin 1A that limits the functional activities of normal and disease-associated forms of this chloride channel.

Molecular basis for decreased muscle chloride conductance in the myotonic goat.

Certain forms of myotonia, a condition characterized by delayed relaxation of muscle secondary to sarcolemmal hyperexcitability, are caused by diminished chloride conductance in the muscle cell membrane. We have investigated the molecular basis for decreased muscle chloride conductance in the myotonic goat, an historically important animal model for the elucidation of the role of chloride in muscle excitation. A single nucleotide change causing the substitution of proline for a conserved alanine residue in the carboxyl terminus of the goat muscle chloride channel (gCIC-1) was discovered. Heterologous expression of the mutation demonstrated a substantial (+47 mV) shift in the midpoint of steady-state activation of the channel, resulting in a diminished channel open probability at voltages near the resting membrane potential of skeletal muscle. These results provide a molecular basis for the decreased chloride conductance in myotonic muscle.

A biologic function for an "orphan" messenger: D-myo-inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate selectively blocks epithelial calcium-activated chloride channels.

Inositol phosphates are a family of water-soluble intracellular signaling molecules derived from membrane inositol phospholipids. They undergo a variety of complex interconversion pathways, and their levels are dynamically regulated within the cytosol in response to a variety of agonists. Relatively little is known about the biological function of most members of this family, with the exception of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. Specifically, the biological functions of inositol tetrakisphosphates are largely obscure. In this paper, we report that D-myo-inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate (D-Ins(3,4,5,6)P4) has a direct biphasic (activation/inhibition) effect on an epithelial Ca(2+)-activated chloride channel. The effect of D-Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 is not mimicked by other inositol tetrakisphosphate isomers, is dependent on the prevailing calcium concentration, and is influenced when channels are phosphorylated by calmodulin kinase II. The predominant effect of D-Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 on phosphorylated channels is inhibitory at levels of intracellular calcium observed in stimulated cells. Our findings indicate the biological function of a molecule hitherto considered as an "orphan" messenger. They suggest that the molecular target for D-Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 is a plasma membrane Ca(2+)-activated chloride channel. Regulation of this channel by D-Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 and Ca2+ may have therapeutic implications for the disease states of both diabetic nephropathy and cystic fibrosis.

Molecular cloning and expression of a cyclic AMP-activated chloride conductance regulator: a novel ATP-binding cassette transporter.

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an ATP-regulated, cAMP-activated chloride channel located in the apical membrane of many epithelial secretory cells. Here we report cloning of a cAMP-activated epithelial basolateral chloride conductance regulator (EBCR) that appears to be a basolateral CFTR counterpart. This novel chloride channel or regulator shows 49% identity with multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) and 29% identity with CFTR. On expression in Xenopus oocytes, EBCR confers a cAMP-activated chloride conductance that is inhibited by the chloride channel blockers niflumic acid, 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamine)benzoic acid, and 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid. Northern blot analysis reveals high expression in small intestine, kidney, and liver. In kidney, immunohistochemistry shows a conspicuous basolateral localization mainly in the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop, distal convoluted tubules and to a lesser extent connecting tubules. These data suggest that in the kidney EBCR is involved in hormone-regulated chloride reabsorption.

Two cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator mutations have different effects on both pulmonary phenotype and regulation of outwardly rectified chloride currents.

Cystic fibrosis (CF), a disorder of electrolyte transport manifest in the lungs, pancreas, sweat duct, and vas deferens, is caused by mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). The CFTR protein has been shown to function as a cAMP-activated chloride channel and also regulates a separate protein, the outwardly rectifying chloride channel (ORCC). To determine the consequence of disease-producing mutations upon these functions, mutant CFTR was transiently expressed in Xenopus oocytes and in human airway epithelial cells lacking functional CFTR. Both G551D, a mutation that causes severe lung disease, and A455E, a mutation associated with mild lung disease, altered but did not abolish CFTR's function as a chloride channel in Xenopus oocytes. Airway epithelial cells transfected with CFTR bearing either A455E or G551D had levels of chloride conductance significantly greater than those of mock-transfected and lower than those of wild-type CFTR-transfected cells, as measured by chloride efflux. A combination of channel blockers and analysis of current-voltage relationships were used to dissect the contribution of CFTR and the ORCC to whole cell currents of transfected cells. While CFTR bearing either mutation could function as a chloride channel, only CFTR bearing A455E retained the function of regulating the ORCC. These results indicate that CF mutations can affect CFTR functions differently and suggest that severity of pulmonary disease may be more closely associated with the regulatory rather than chloride channel function of CFTR.