The H+-Sucrose Cotransporter NtSUT1 Is Essential for Sugar Export from Tobacco Leaves1

In many species translocation of sucrose from the mesophyll to the phloem is carrier mediated. A sucrose/H+-symporter cDNA, NtSUT1, was isolated from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and shown to be highly expressed in mature leaves and at low levels in other tissues, including floral organs. To study the in vivo function of NtSUT1, tobacco plants were transformed with a SUT1 antisense construct under control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. Upon maturation, leaves of transformants expressing reduced amounts of SUT1 mRNA curled downward, and strongly affected plants developed chloroses and necroses that led to death. The leaves exhibited impaired ability to export recently fixed 14CO2 and were unable to export transient starch during extended periods of darkness. As a consequence, soluble carbohydrates accumulated and photosynthesis was reduced. Autoradiographs of leaves show a heterogenous pattern of CO2 fixation even after a 24-h chase. The 14C pattern does not change with time, suggesting that movement of photosynthate between mesophyll cells may also be impaired. The affected lines show a reduction in the development of the root system and delayed or impaired flowering. Taken together, the effects observed in a seed plant (tobacco) demonstrate the importance of SUT1 for sucrose loading into the phloem via an apoplastic route and possibly for intermesophyll transport as well.

Structure of murine and human renal type II Na+-phosphate cotransporter genes (Npt2 and NPT2).

Na+-phosphate (Pi) cotransport across the renal brush border membrane is the rate limiting step in the overall reabsorption of filtered Pi. Murine and human renal-specific cDNAs (NaPi-7 and NaPi-3, respectively) related to this cotransporter activity (type II Na+-Pi cotransporter) have been cloned. We now report the cloning and characterization of the corresponding mouse (Npt2) and human (NPT2) genes. The genes were cloned by screening mouse genomic and human chromosome 5-specific libraries, respectively. Both genes are approximately 16 kb and are comprised of 13 exons and 12 introns, the junctions of which conform to donor and acceptor site consensus sequences. Putative CAAT and TATA boxes are located, respectively, at positions -147 and -40 of the Npt2 gene and -143 and -51 of the NPT2 gene, relative to nucleotide 1 of the corresponding cDNAs. The translation initiation site is within exon 2 of both genes. The first 220 bp of the mouse and human promoter regions exhibit 72% identity. Two transcription start sites (at positions -9 and - 10 with respect to nucleotide 1 of NaPi-7 cDNA) and two polyadenylylation signals were identified in the Npt2 gene by primer extension, 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). A 484-bp 5' flanking region of the Npt2 gene, comprising the CAAT box, TATA box, and exon 1, was cloned upstream of a luciferase reporter gene; this construct significantly stimulated luciferase gene expression, relative to controls, when transiently transfected into OK cells, a renal cell line expressing type II Na+ -Pi cotransporter activity. The present data provide a basis for detailed analysis of cis and trans elements involved in the regulation of Npt2/NPT2 gene transcription and facilitate screening for mutations in the NPT2 gene in patients with autosomally inherited disorders of renal Pi reabsorption.

In vivo suppression of the renal Na+/Pi cotransporter by antisense oligonucleotides.

A 20-mer phosphorothioate oligonucleotide (AS1) was designed to hybridize to the message for the rat kidney sodium phosphate cotransporter NaPi-2 close to the translation initiation site. Single intravenous doses of this oligonucleotide were given to rats maintained on a low phosphorus diet to increase NaPi-2 expression. At 3 days after oligonucleotide infusion, rats receiving 2.5 micromol of AS1 exhibited a reduction in renal NaPi-2 to cyclophilin mRNA ratio by 40% +/- 17%, and rats receiving 7.5 micromol of AS1 exhibited a reduction in NaPi-2 to cyclophilin mRNA ratio by 46% +/- 21%. Reversed-sequence AS1 was without effect. The higher dose of 7.5 micromol of AS1 also reduced the rate of phosphate uptake into renal brush border membrane vesicles and the expression of NaPi-2 protein detected by Western blotting in these vesicles. Reversed sequence AS1 was again without effect on these parameters. These results suggest that systemically infused oligonucleotides can exert antisense effects in the renal proximal tubule.

Role of the cotransporter KCC2 in cortical excitatory synapse development and febrile seizure susceptibility

Le co-transporteur KCC2 spécifique au potassium et chlore a pour rôle principal de réduire la concentration intracellulaire de chlore, entraînant l’hyperpolarisation des courants GABAergic l’autorisant ainsi à devenir inhibiteur dans le cerveau mature. De plus, il est aussi impliqué dans le développement des synapses excitatrices, nommées aussi les épines dendritiques. Le but de notre projet est d’étudier l’effet des modifications concernant l'expression et la fonction de KCC2 dans le cortex du cerveau en développement dans un contexte de convulsions précoces. Les convulsions fébriles affectent environ 5% des enfants, et ce dès la première année de vie. Les enfants atteints de convulsions fébriles prolongées et atypiques sont plus susceptibles à développer l’épilepsie. De plus, la présence d’une malformation cérébrale prédispose au développement de convulsions fébriles atypiques, et d’épilepsie du lobe temporal. Ceci suggère que ces pathologies néonatales peuvent altérer le développement des circuits neuronaux irréversiblement. Cependant, les mécanismes qui sous-tendent ces effets ne sont pas encore compris. Nous avons pour but de comprendre l'impact des altérations de KCC2 sur la survenue des convulsions et dans la formation des épines dendritiques. Nous avons étudié KCC2 dans un modèle animal de convulsions précédemment validé, qui combine une lésion corticale à P1 (premier jour de vie postnatale), suivie d'une convulsion induite par hyperthermie à P10 (nommés rats LHS). À la suite de ces insultes, 86% des rats mâles LHS développent l’épilepsie à l’âge adulte, au même titre que des troubles d’apprentissage. À P20, ces animaux presentent une augmentation de l'expression de KCC2 associée à une hyperpolarisation du potentiel de réversion de GABA. De plus, nous avons observé des réductions dans la taille des épines dendritiques et l'amplitude des courants post-synaptiques excitateurs miniatures, ainsi qu’un déficit de mémoire spatial, et ce avant le développement des convulsions spontanées. Dans le but de rétablir les déficits observés chez les rats LHS, nous avons alors réalisé un knock-down de KCC2 par shARN spécifique par électroporation in utero. Nos résultats ont montré une diminution de la susceptibilité aux convulsions due à la lésion corticale, ainsi qu'une restauration de la taille des épines. Ainsi, l’augmentation de KCC2 à la suite d'une convulsion précoce, augmente la susceptibilité aux convulsions modifiant la morphologie des épines dendritiques, probable facteur contribuant à l’atrophie de l’hippocampe et l’occurrence des déficits cognitifs. Le deuxième objectif a été d'inspecter l’effet de la surexpression précoce de KCC2 dans le développement des épines dendritiques de l’hippocampe. Nous avons ainsi surexprimé KCC2 aussi bien in vitro dans des cultures organotypiques d’hippocampe, qu' in vivo par électroporation in utero. À l'inverse des résultats publiés dans le cortex, nous avons observé une diminution de la densité d’épines dendritiques et une augmentation de la taille des épines. Afin de confirmer la spécificité du rôle de KCC2 face à la région néocorticale étudiée, nous avons surexprimé KCC2 dans le cortex par électroporation in utero. Cette manipulation a eu pour conséquences d’augmenter la densité et la longueur des épines synaptiques de l’arbre dendritique des cellules glutamatergiques. En conséquent, ces résultats ont démontré pour la première fois, que les modifications de l’expression de KCC2 sont spécifiques à la région affectée. Ceci souligne les obstacles auxquels nous faisons face dans le développement de thérapie adéquat pour l’épilepsie ayant pour but de moduler l’expression de KCC2 de façon spécifique.

Role of the cotransporter KCC2 in cortical excitatory synapse development and febrile seizure susceptibility

Le co-transporteur KCC2 spécifique au potassium et chlore a pour rôle principal de réduire la concentration intracellulaire de chlore, entraînant l’hyperpolarisation des courants GABAergic l’autorisant ainsi à devenir inhibiteur dans le cerveau mature. De plus, il est aussi impliqué dans le développement des synapses excitatrices, nommées aussi les épines dendritiques. Le but de notre projet est d’étudier l’effet des modifications concernant l'expression et la fonction de KCC2 dans le cortex du cerveau en développement dans un contexte de convulsions précoces. Les convulsions fébriles affectent environ 5% des enfants, et ce dès la première année de vie. Les enfants atteints de convulsions fébriles prolongées et atypiques sont plus susceptibles à développer l’épilepsie. De plus, la présence d’une malformation cérébrale prédispose au développement de convulsions fébriles atypiques, et d’épilepsie du lobe temporal. Ceci suggère que ces pathologies néonatales peuvent altérer le développement des circuits neuronaux irréversiblement. Cependant, les mécanismes qui sous-tendent ces effets ne sont pas encore compris. Nous avons pour but de comprendre l'impact des altérations de KCC2 sur la survenue des convulsions et dans la formation des épines dendritiques. Nous avons étudié KCC2 dans un modèle animal de convulsions précédemment validé, qui combine une lésion corticale à P1 (premier jour de vie postnatale), suivie d'une convulsion induite par hyperthermie à P10 (nommés rats LHS). À la suite de ces insultes, 86% des rats mâles LHS développent l’épilepsie à l’âge adulte, au même titre que des troubles d’apprentissage. À P20, ces animaux presentent une augmentation de l'expression de KCC2 associée à une hyperpolarisation du potentiel de réversion de GABA. De plus, nous avons observé des réductions dans la taille des épines dendritiques et l'amplitude des courants post-synaptiques excitateurs miniatures, ainsi qu’un déficit de mémoire spatial, et ce avant le développement des convulsions spontanées. Dans le but de rétablir les déficits observés chez les rats LHS, nous avons alors réalisé un knock-down de KCC2 par shARN spécifique par électroporation in utero. Nos résultats ont montré une diminution de la susceptibilité aux convulsions due à la lésion corticale, ainsi qu'une restauration de la taille des épines. Ainsi, l’augmentation de KCC2 à la suite d'une convulsion précoce, augmente la susceptibilité aux convulsions modifiant la morphologie des épines dendritiques, probable facteur contribuant à l’atrophie de l’hippocampe et l’occurrence des déficits cognitifs. Le deuxième objectif a été d'inspecter l’effet de la surexpression précoce de KCC2 dans le développement des épines dendritiques de l’hippocampe. Nous avons ainsi surexprimé KCC2 aussi bien in vitro dans des cultures organotypiques d’hippocampe, qu' in vivo par électroporation in utero. À l'inverse des résultats publiés dans le cortex, nous avons observé une diminution de la densité d’épines dendritiques et une augmentation de la taille des épines. Afin de confirmer la spécificité du rôle de KCC2 face à la région néocorticale étudiée, nous avons surexprimé KCC2 dans le cortex par électroporation in utero. Cette manipulation a eu pour conséquences d’augmenter la densité et la longueur des épines synaptiques de l’arbre dendritique des cellules glutamatergiques. En conséquent, ces résultats ont démontré pour la première fois, que les modifications de l’expression de KCC2 sont spécifiques à la région affectée. Ceci souligne les obstacles auxquels nous faisons face dans le développement de thérapie adéquat pour l’épilepsie ayant pour but de moduler l’expression de KCC2 de façon spécifique.

The rat Na+-sulfate cotransporter rNaS2: functional characterization, tissue distribution, and gene (slc13a4) structure

Inorganic sulfate is essential for numerous functions in mammalian physiology. In the present study, we characterized the functional properties of the rat Na+-sulfate cotransporter NaS2 (rNaS2), determined its tissue distribution, and identified its gene (slc13a4) structure. Expression of rNaS2 protein in Xenopus oocytes led to a Na+-dependent transport of sulfate that was inhibited by phosphate, thiosulfate, tungstate, selenate, oxalate, and molybdate, but not by citrate, succinate, or DIDS. Transport kinetics of rNaS2 determined a K-M for sulfate of 1.26 mM. Na+ kinetics determined a Hill coefficient of n=3.0 +/- 0.7, suggesting a Na+:SO42- stoichiometry of 3:1. rNaS2 mRNA was highly expressed in placenta, with lower levels found in the brain and liver. slc13a4 maps to rat chromosome 4 and contains 17 exons, spanning over 46 kb in length. This gene produces two alternatively spliced transcripts, of which the transcript lacking exon 2 is the most abundant form. Its 5' flanking region contains CAAT- and GC-box motifs and a number of putative transcription factor binding sites, including GATA-1, SP1, and AP-2 consensus sequences. This is the first study to characterize rNaS2 transport kinetics, define its tissue distribution, and resolve its gene (slc13a4) structure and 5' flanking region.

Functional characterization and genomic organization of the human Na+-sulfate cotransporter hNaS2 gene (SLC13A4)

Sulfate plays an essential role in human growth and development. Here, we characterized the functional properties of the human Na+-sulfate cotransporter (hNaS2), determined its tissue distribution, and identified its gene (SLC13A4) structure. Expression of hNaS2 protein in Xenopus oocytes led to a Na+-dependent transport of sulfate that was inhibited by thiosulfate, phosphate, molybdate. selenate and tungstate, but not by oxalate, citrate, succinate, phenol red or DIDS. Transport kinetics of hNaS2 determined a K, for sulfate of 0.38 mM, suggestive of a high affinity sulfate transporter. Na+ kinetics determined a Hill coefficient of 1.6 +/- 0.6, suggesting a Na: SO42- stoichiometry of 2:1. hNaS2 mRNA was highly expressed in placenta and testis, with intermediate levels in brain and lower levels found in the heart, thymus, and liver. The SLC13A4 gene contains 16 exons, spanning over 47 kb in length. Its 5'-flanking region contains CAAT- and GC-box motifs, and a number of putative transcription factor binding sites, including GATA-1, AP-1, and AP-2 consensus sequences. This is the first study to characterize hNaS2 transport kinetics, define its tissue distribution, and resolve its gene (SLC13A4) structure and 5' flanking region. (C) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Glucose affects monocarboxylate cotransporter (MCT) 1 expression during mouse preimplantation development

Cleavage-stage embryos have an absolute requirement for pyruvate and lactate, but as the morula compacts, it switches to glucose as the preferred energy source to fuel glycolysis. Substrates such as glucose, amino acids, and lactate are moved into and out of cells by facilitated diffusion. in the case of lactate and pyruvate, this occurs via H+-monocarboxylate cotransporter (MCT) proteins. To clarify the role of MCT in development, transport characteristics for DL-lactate were examined, as were mRNA expression and protein localisation for MCT1 and MCT3, using confocal laser scanning immunofluorescence in freshly collected and cultured embryos. Blastocysts demonstrated significantly higher affinity for DL-lactate than zygotes (K-m 20 +/- 10 vs 87 +/- 35 mmol lactate/l; P = 0.03 by linear regression) but was similar for all stages. For embryos derived in vivo and those cultured with glucose, MCT1 mRNA was present throughout preimplantation development, protein immunoreactivity appearing diffuse throughout the cytoplasm with brightest intensity in the outer cortical region of blastomeres. in expanding blastocysts, MCT1 became more prominent in the cytoplasmic cortex of blastomeres, with brightest intensity in the polar trophectoderm. Without glucose, MCT1 mRNA was not expressed, and immunoreactivity dramatically reduced in intensity as morulae died. MCT3 mRNA and immunoreactivity were not detected in early embryos. The differential expression of MCT1 in the presence or absence of glucose demonstrates that it is important in the critical regulation of pH and monocarboxylate transport during preimplantation development, and implies a role for glucose in the control of MCT1, but not MCT3, expression.

Molecular cloning and characterization of the mouse Na+ sulfate cotransporter gene (Slc13a4): structure and expression

Sulfate is an essential ion required for numerous functions in mammalian physiology. Due to its hydrophilic nature, cells require sulfate transporters on their plasma membranes to allow entry of sulfate into cells. In this study, we identified a new mouse Na+-sulfate cotransporter (mNaS2), characterized its tissue distribution and determined its cDNA and gene (Slc13a4) structures. mNaS2 mRNA was expressed in placenta, brain, lung, eye, heart, testis, thymus and liver. The mouse NaS2 cDNA spans 3384 nucleotides and its open frame encodes a protein of 624 amino acids. Slc13a4 maps to mouse chromosome 6131 and contains 16 exons, spanning over 40 kb in length. Its 5'-flanking region contains CART- and GC-box motifs and a number of putative transcription factor binding sites, including GATA-1, MTF-1, STAT6 and HNF4 consensus sequences. This is the first study to define the tissue distribution of mNaS2 and resolve its cDNA and gene structures, which will allow us to investigate mNaS2 gene expression in vivo and determine its role in mammalian physiology.

Functional analysis of missense variants in the TRESK (KCNK18) K+ channel

A loss of function mutation in the TRESK K2P potassium channel (KCNK18), has recently been linked with typical familial migraine with aura. We now report the functional characterisation of additional TRESK channel missense variants identified in unrelated patients. Several variants either had no apparent functional effect, or they caused a reduction in channel activity. However, the C110R variant was found to cause a complete loss of TRESK function, yet is present in both sporadic migraine and control cohorts, and no variation in KCNK18 copy number was found. Thus despite the previously identified association between loss of TRESK channel activity and migraine in a large multigenerational pedigree, this finding indicates that a single non-functional TRESK variant is not alone sufficient to cause typical migraine and highlights the genetic complexity of this disorder. Migraine is a common, disabling neurological disorder with a genetic, environmental and in some cases hormonal component. It is characterized by attacks of severe, usually unilateral and throbbing headache, can be accompanied by nausea, vomiting and photophobia and is clinically divided into two main subtypes, migraine with aura (MA) when a migraine is accompanied by transient and reversible focal neurological symptoms and migraine without aura (MO)1. The multifactorial and clinical heterogeneity of the disorder have considerably hindered the identification of common migraine susceptibility genes and most of our current understanding comes from the studies of familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM), a rare monogenic autosomal dominant form of MA2. So far, the three susceptibility genes that have been convincingly identified in FHM families all encode ion channels or transporters: CACNA1A encoding the α1 subunit of the Cav2.1 calcium channel3, SCN1A encoding the Nav1.1 sodium channel4 and ATP1A2 encoding the α2 subunit of the Na+/K+ pump5. It is believed that mutations in these genes may lead to increased efflux of glutamate and potassium in the synapse and thereby cause migraine by rendering the brain more susceptible to cortical spreading depression (CSD)6 which is thought to play a role in initiating a migraine attack7,8. However, these genes have not to date been implicated in common forms of migraine9. Nevertheless, current opinion suggests that typical migraine, like FHM, is also disorder of neuronal excitability, ion homeostasis and neurotransmitter release10,11,12. Mutations in the SLC4A4 gene encoding the sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter NBCe1, have recently been implicated in several different forms of migraine13, and a variety of genes involved in glutamate homeostasis (PGCP, MTDH14 and LRP115) and a cation channel (TRPM8)15 have also recently been implicated in migraine via genome-wide association studies. Ion channels are therefore highly likely to play an important role in the pathogenesis of typical migraine. TRESK (KCNK18), is a member of the two-pore domain (K2P) family of potassium channels involved in the control of cellular electrical excitability16. Regulation of TRESK activity by the calcium-dependent phosphatase calcineurin17, as well as its expression in dorsal root ganglia (DRG)18 and trigeminal ganglia (TG)19,20 has led to a proposed role for this channel in a variety of pain pathways. In a recent study, a frameshift mutation (F139Wfsx24) in TRESK was identified in a large multigenerational pedigree where it co-segregated perfectly with typical MA and a significant genome-wide linkage LOD score of 3.0. Furthermore, functional analysis revealed that this mutation caused a complete loss of TRESK function and that the truncated subunit was also capable of down regulating wild-type channel function. This therefore highlighted KCNK18 as potentially important candidate gene and suggested that TRESK dysfunction might play a possible role in the pathogenesis of familial migraine with visual aura20. Additional screening for KCNK18 mutations in unrelated sporadic migraine and control cohorts also identified a number of other missense variants; R10G, A34V, C110R, S231P and A233V20. The A233V variant was found only in the control cohort, whilst A34V was identified in a single Australian migraine proband for which family samples were not available, but it was not detected in controls. By contrast, the R10G, C110R, and S231P variants were found in both migraineurs and controls in both cohorts. In this study, we have investigated the functional effect of these variants to further probe the potential association of TRESK dysfunction with typical migraine.

Canagliflozin : something new for type 2 diabetes, but is it safe and efficacious?

Evaluation of Inagaki N, Kondo K, Yoshinari T, et al. Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 12-week study. Diabetes Obes Metab 2013. [Epub ahead of print] and Cefalu WT, Leiter LA, Yoon KH, et al. Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin versus glimepiride in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin (CANTATA-SU): 52 week results from a randomized, double-blind, phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2013;382:941-50 INTRODUCTION Inhibition of the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2), to promote the excretion of glucose, is a new paradigm in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. AREAS COVERED Canagliflozin is an SGLT2 inhibitor, which has been the subject of two recent clinical trials, which are evaluated. EXPERT OPINION Studies with canagliflozin, in subjects with type 2 diabetes, have shown that its use is associated with reductions in HbA1c and body weight and small reductions in blood pressure and triglycerides, while increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. As monotherapy in Japanese subjects, or in comparison with glimepiride in CANTATA-SU (CANagliflozin Treatment and Trial Analysis versus SUlphonylurea), canagliflozin causes a low incidence of hypoglycemia, and this is an advantage over glimepiride. However, one of the disadvantages with canagliflozin, which was also highlighted in CANTATA-SU, is that canagliflozin can cause urogenital infections, which are not observed with other antidiabetic drugs. The Federal Drug Administration has recently approved canagliflozin for use in type 2 diabetes, while directing that a clinical outcome safety trial be undertaken. We are concerned that canagliflozin has been approved for use in type 2 diabetes prior to a clinical outcome study of efficacy being undertaken and without the outcome of further safety testing.

Cellular and network mechanisms generating spontaneous population events in the immature rat hippocampus

Distinct endogenous network events, generated independently of sensory input, are a general feature of various structures of the immature central nervous system. In the immature hippocampus, these type of events are seen as "giant depolarizing potentials" (GDPs) in intracellular recordings in vitro. GABA, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the adult brain, has a depolarizing action in immature neurons, and GDPs have been proposed to be driven by GABAergic transmission. Moreover, GDPs have been thought to reflect an early pattern that disappears during development in parallel with the maturation of hyperpolarizing GABAergic inhibition. However, the adult hippocampus in vivo also generates endogenous network events known as sharp (positive) waves (SPWs), which reflect synchronous discharges of CA3 pyramidal neurons and are thought to be involved in cognitive functions. In this thesis, mechanisms of GDP generation were studied with intra- and extracellular recordings in the neonatal rat hippocampus in vitro and in vivo. Immature CA3 pyramidal neurons were found to generate intrinsic bursts of spikes and to act as cellular pacemakers for GDP activity whereas depolarizing GABAergic signalling was found to have a temporally non-patterned facilitatory role in the generation of the network events. Furthermore, the data indicate that the intrinsic bursts of neonatal CA3 pyramidal neurons and, consequently, GDPs are driven by a persistent Na+ current and terminated by a slow Ca2+-dependent K+ current. Gramicidin-perforated patch recordings showed that the depolarizing driving force for GABAA receptor-mediated actions is provided by Cl- uptake via the Na-K-C1 cotransporter, NKCC1, in the immature CA3 pyramids. A specific blocker of NKCC1, bumetanide, inhibited SPWs and GDPs in the neonatal rat hippocampus in vivo and in vitro, respectively. Finally, pharmacological blockade of the GABA transporter-1 prolonged the decay of the large GDP-associated GABA transients but not of single postsynaptic GABAA receptor-mediated currents. As a whole the data in this thesis indicate that the mechanism of GDP generation, based on the interconnected network of bursting CA3 pyramidal neurons, is similar to that involved in adult SPW activity. Hence, GDPs do not reflect a network pattern that disappears during development but they are the in vitro counterpart of neonatal SPWs.

Mechanisms of KCC2 upregulation during development

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) acting through ionotropic GABAA receptors plays a crucial role in the activity of the central nervous system (CNS). It triggers Ca2+ rise providing trophic support in developing neurons and conducts fast inhibitory function in mature neuronal networks. There is a developmental change in the GABAA reversal potential towards more negative levels during the first two postnatal weeks in rodent hippocampus. This change provides the basis for mature GABAergic activity and is attributable to the developmental expression of the neuron-specific potassium chloride cotransporter 2 (KCC2). In this work we have studied the mechanisms responsible for the control of KCC2 developmental expression. As a model system we used hippocampal dissociated cultures plated from embryonic day (E) 17 mice embryos before the onset of KCC2 expression. We showed that KCC2 was significantly up-regulated during the first two weeks of culture development. Interestingly, the level of KCC2 upregulation was not altered by chronic pharmacological blockage of action potentials as well as GABAergic and glutamatergic synaptic transmission. By in silico analysis of the proximal KCC2 promoter region we identified 10 candidate transcription factor binding sites that are highly conserved in mammalian KCC2 genes. One of these transcription factors, namely early growth response factor 4 (Egr4), had similar developmental profile as KCC2 and considerably increased the activity of mouse KCC2 gene in neuronal cells. Next we investigated the involvement of neurotrophic factors in regulation of Egr4 and KCC2 expression. We found that in immature hippocampal cultures Egr4 and KCC2 levels were strongly up-regulated by brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)and neurturin. The effect of neurotrophic factors was dependent on the activation of a mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathway. Intact Egr4-binding site in proximal KCC2 promoter was required for BDNF-induced KCC2 transcription. In vitro data were confirmed by several in vivo experiments where we detected an upregulation of KCC2 protein levels after intrahippocampal administration of BDNF or neurturin. Importantly, a MAPK-dependent rise in Egr4 and KCC2 expression levels was also observed after a period of kainic acid-induced seizure activity in neonatal rats suggesting that neuronal activity might be involved in Egr4-mediated regulation of KCC2 expression. Finally we demonstrated that the mammalian KCC2 gene (alias Slc12a5) generated two neuron-specific isoforms by using alternative promoters and first exons. A novel isoform of KCC2, termed KCC2a, differed from the previously known KCC2b isoform by 40 unique N-terminal amino acid residues. KCC2a expression was restricted to CNS,remained relatively constant during postnatal development, and contributed 20 50% of total KCC2 mRNA expression in the neonatal mouse brainstem and spinal cord. In summary, our data provide insight into the complex regulation of KCC2 expression during early postnatal development. Although basal KCC2 expression seems to be intrinsically regulated, it can be further augmented by neurotrophic factors or by enhanced activity triggering MAPK phosphorylation and Egr4 induction. Additional KCC2a isoform, regulated by another promoter, provides basal KCC2 level in neonatal brainstem and spinal cord required for survival of KCC2b knockout mice.

Structural and functional roles of KCC2 in developing cortex

Cation chloride cotransporters (CCCs) are critical for controlling intracellular chloride homeostasis. The CCC family is composed of four isoforms of K-Cl cotransporters (KCC1-4), two isoforms of Na-K-2Cl cotransporters (NKCC1-2), one Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC) and two the structurally related proteins with unknown function, CCC8 also known as cation-chloride cotransporter interaction protein, CIP, and CCC9. KCC2 is a neuron-specific isoform, which plays a prominent role in controlling the intracellular Cl- concentration in neurons and is responsible for producing the negative shift of GABAA responses from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing during neuronal maturation. In the present studies we first used in situ hybridization to examine the developmental expression patterns of the cation-chloride cotransporters KCC1-4 and NKCC1. We found that they display complementary expression patterns during embryonic brain development. Most interestingly, KCC2 expression in the embryonic central nervous system strictly follows neuronal maturation. In vitro data obtained from primary and organotypic neuronal cultures support this finding and revealed a temporal correlation between the expression of KCC2 and synaptogenesis. We found that KCC2 is highly expressed in filopodia and mature spines as well as dendritic shaft and investigated the role of KCC2 in spine formation by analyzing KCC2-/- neurons in vitro. Our studies revealed that KCC2 is a key factor in the maturation of dendritic spines. Interestingly, the effect of KCC2 in spine formation is not due to Cl- transport activity, but mediated through the interaction between KCC2 C-terminal and intracellular protein associated with cytoskeleton. The interacting protein we found is protein 4.1N by immunoprecipitation. Our results indicate a structural role for KCC2 in the development of functional glutamatergic synapses and suggest KCC2 as a synchronizer for the functional development of glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses in neuronal network. Studies on the regulatory mechanisms of KCC2 expression during development and plasticity revealed that synaptic activity of both the glutamatergic and GABAergic system is not required for up-regulation of KCC2 during development, whereas in acute mature hippocampal slices which undergo continuous synchronous activity induced by the absence of Mg2+ solution, KCC2 mRNA and protein expression were down-regulated in CA1 pyramidal neurons subsequently leading to a reduced capacity for neuronal Cl- extrusion. This effect is mediated by endogenous BDNF-TrkB down-stream cascades involving both Shc/FRS-2 and PLCγ-CREB signaling. BDNF mediated changes in KCC2 expression indicate that KCC2 is significantly involved in the complex mechanisms of neuronal plasticity during development and pathophysiological conditions.

GABAa Receptor Mediated Signalling in the Brain: Inhibition, Shunting and Excitation

Within central nervous system, the simple division of chemical synaptic transmission to depolarizing excitation mediated by glutamate and hyperpolarizing inhibition mediated by γ-amino butyric acid (GABA), is evidently an oversimplification. The GABAa receptor (GABAaR) mediated responses can be of opposite sign within a single resting cell, due to the compartmentalized distribution of cation chloride cotransporters (CCCs). The K+/Cl- cotransporter 2 (KCC2), member of the CCC family, promotes K+ fuelled Cl- extrusion and sets the reversal potential of GABA evoked anion currents typically slightly below the resting membrane potential. The interesting ionic plasticity property of GABAergic signalling emerges from the short-term and long-term alterations in the intraneuronal concentrations of GABAaR permeable anions (Cl- and HCO3-). The short-term effects arise rapidly (in the time scale of hundreds of milliseconds) and are due to the GABAaR activation dependent shifts in anion gradients, whereas the changes in expression, distribution and kinetic regulation of CCCs are underlying the long-term effects, which may take minutes or even hours to develop. In this Thesis, the differences in the reversal potential of GABAaR mediated responses between dopaminergic and GABAergic cell types, located in the substantia nigra, were shown to be attributable to the differences in the chloride extrusion mechanisms. The stronger inhibitory effect of GABA on GABAergic neurons was due to the cell type specific expression of KCC2 whereas the KCC2 was absent from dopaminergic neurons, leading to a less prominent inhibition brought by GABAaR activation. The levels of KCC2 protein exhibited activity dependent alterations in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Intense neuronal activity, leading to a massive release of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in vivo, or applications of tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB) agonists BDNF or neurotrophin-4 in vitro, were shown to down-regulate KCC2 protein levels which led to a reduction in the efficacy of Cl- extrusion. The GABAergic transmission is interestingly involved in an increase of extracellular K+ concentration. A substantial increase in interstitial K+ tends to depolarize the cell membrane. The effects that varying ion gradients had on the generation of biphasic GABAaR mediated responses were addressed, with particular emphasis on the novel idea that the K+/Cl- extrusion via KCC2 is accelerated in response to a rapid accumulation of intracellular Cl-. The KCC2 inhibitor furosemide produced a large reduction in the GABAaR dependent extracellular K+ transients. Thus, paradoxically, both the inefficient KCC2 activity (via increased intracellular Cl-) and efficient KCC2 activity (via increased extracellular K+) may promote excitation.