Break-induced replication: A review and an example in budding yeast

Break-induced replication (BIR) is a nonreciprocal recombination-dependent replication process that is an effective mechanism to repair a broken chromosome. We review key roles played by BIR in maintaining genome integrity, including restarting DNA replication at broken replication forks and maintaining telomeres in the absence of telomerase. Previous studies suggested that gene targeting does not occur by simple crossings-over between ends of the linearized transforming fragment and the target chromosome, but involves extensive new DNA synthesis resembling BIR. We examined gene targeting in Saccharomyces cerevisiae where only one end of the transformed DNA has homology to chromosomal sequences. Linearized, centromere-containing plasmid DNA with the 5′ end of the LEU2 gene at one end was transformed into a strain in which the 5′ end of LEU2 was replaced by ADE1, preventing simple homologous gene replacement to become Leu2+. Ade1+ Leu2+ transformants were recovered in which the entire LEU2 gene and as much as 7 kb of additional sequences were found on the plasmid, joined by microhomologies characteristic of nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ). In other experiments, cells were transformed with DNA fragments lacking an ARS and homologous to only 50 bp of ADE2 added to the ends of a URA3 gene. Autonomously replicating circles were recovered, containing URA3 and as much as 8 kb of ADE2-adjacent sequences, including a nearby ARS, copied from chromosomal DNA. Thus, the end of a linearized DNA fragment can initiate new DNA synthesis by BIR in which the newly synthesized DNA is displaced and subsequently forms circles by NHEJ.

Rfc5, a small subunit of replication factor C complex, couples DNA replication and mitosis in budding yeast.

The inhibition of DNA synthesis prevents mitotic entry through the action of the S phase checkpoint. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, an essential protein kinase, Spk1/Mec2/Rad53/Sad1, controls the coupling of S phase to mitosis. In an attempt to identify genes that genetically interact with Spk1, we have isolated a temperature-sensitive mutation, rfc5-1, that can be suppressed by overexpression of SPK1. The RFC5 gene encodes a small subunit of replication factor C complex. At the restrictive temperature, rfc5-1 mutant cells entered mitosis with unevenly separated or fragmented chromosomes, resulting in loss of viability. Thus, the rfc5 mutation defective for DNA replication is also impaired in the S phase checkpoint. Overexpression of POL30, which encodes the proliferating cell nuclear antigen, suppressed the replication defect of the rfc5 mutant but not its checkpoint defect. Taken together, these results suggested that replication factor C has a direct role in sensing the state of DNA replication and transmitting the signal to the checkpoint machinery.

Kinetics of spindle pole body separation in budding yeast.

In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the spindle pole body (SPB) serves as the microtubule-organizing center and is the functional analog of the centrosome of higher organisms. By expressing a fusion of a yeast SPB-associated protein to the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein, the movement of the SPBs in living yeast cells undergoing mitosis was observed by fluorescence microscopy. The ability to visualize SPBs in vivo has revealed previously unidentified mitotic events. During anaphase, the mitotic spindle has four sequential activities: alignment at the mother-daughter junction, fast elongation, translocation into the bud, and slow elongation. These results indicate that distinct forces act upon the spindle at different times during anaphase.

Cell cycle-regulated nuclear import and export of Cdc47, a protein essential for initiation of DNA replication in budding yeast.

The CDC47 gene was isolated by complementation of a cdc47 temperature-sensitive mutant in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and was shown to encode a predicted polypeptide, Cdc47, of 845 aa. Cdc47 belongs to the Cdc46/Mcm family of proteins, previously shown to be essential for initiation of DNA replication. Using indirect immunofluorescence microscopy and subcellular fractionation techniques, we show that Cdc47 undergoes cell cycle-regulated changes in its subcellular localization. At mitosis, Cdc47 enters the nucleus, where it remains until soon after the initiation of DNA replication, when it is rapidly exported back into the cytoplasm. Cdc47 protein levels do not vary with the cell cycle, but expression of CDC47 and nascent synthesis of Cdc47 occur late in the cell cycle, coinciding with mitosis. Together, these results show that Cdc47 is not only imported into the nucleus at the end of mitosis but is also exported back into the cytoplasm at the beginning of S phase. The observation that Cdc47 is exported from the nucleus at the beginning of S phase has important implications for how initiation of DNA replication is controlled.

Microtubule attachment and regulation mechanisms of the budding yeast kinetochore

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-08

Communication and choice in yeast mating

Dissertação apresentada para obtenção do grau de doutor em Biologia de Sistemas pelo Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica da Universidade Nova de Lisboa.

Functional differentiation of tbf1 orthologues in fission and budding yeasts.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, TBF1, an essential gene, influences telomere function but also has other roles in the global regulation of transcription. We have identified a new member of the tbf1 gene family in the mammalian pathogen Pneumocystis carinii. We demonstrate by transspecies complementation that its ectopic expression can provide the essential functions of Schizosaccharomyces pombe tbf1 but that there is no rescue between fission and budding yeast orthologues. Our findings indicate that an essential function of this family of proteins has diverged in the budding and fission yeasts and suggest that effects on telomere length or structure are not the primary cause of inviability in S. pombe tbf1 null strains.

The dynamics of yeast telomeres and silencing proteins through the cell cycle.

Genes integrated near the telomeres of budding yeast have a variegated pattern of gene repression that is mediated by the silent information regulatory proteins Sir2p, Sir3p, and Sir4p. Immunolocalization and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) reveal 6-10 perinuclear foci in which silencing proteins and subtelomeric sequences colocalize, suggesting that these are sites of Sir-mediated repression. Telomeres lacking subtelomeric repeat elements and the silent mating locus, HML, also localize to the periphery of the nucleus. Conditions that disrupt telomere proximal repression disrupt the focal staining pattern of Sir proteins, but not necessarily the localization of telomeric DNA. To monitor the telomere-associated pools of heterochromatin-binding proteins (Sir and Rap1 proteins) during mitotic cell division, we have performed immunofluorescence and telomeric FISH on populations of yeast cells synchronously traversing the cell cycle. We observe a partial release of Rap1p from telomeres in late G2/M, although telomeres appear to stay clustered during G2-phase and throughout mitosis. A partial release of Sir3p and Sir4p during mitosis also occurs. This is not observed upon HU arrest, although other types of DNA damage cause a dramatic relocalization of Sir and Rap1 proteins. The observed cell cycle dynamics were confirmed by direct epifluorescence of a GFP-Rap1p fusion. Using live GFP fluorescence we show that the diffuse mitotic distribution of GFP-Rap1p is restored to the interphase pattern of foci in early G1-phase.

Cell polarization in budding and fission yeasts.

Polarization is a fundamental cellular property, which is essential for the function of numerous cell types. Over the past three to four decades, research using the best-established yeast systems in cell biological research, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (or budding yeast) and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (or fission yeast), has brought to light fundamental principles governing the establishment and maintenance of a polarized, asymmetric state. These two organisms, though both ascomycetes, are evolutionarily very distant and exhibit distinct shapes and modes of growth. In this review, we compare and contrast the two systems. We first highlight common cell polarization pathways, detailing the contribution of Rho GTPases, the cytoskeleton, membrane trafficking, lipids, and protein scaffolds. We then contrast the major differences between the two organisms, describing their distinct strategies in growth site selection and growth zone dimensions and compartmentalization, which may be the basis for their distinct shapes.

The transcriptional network activated by Cln3 cyclin at the G1-to-S transition of the yeast cell cycle

Background: The G1-to-S transition of the cell cycle in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae involves an extensive transcriptional program driven by transcription factors SBF (Swi4-Swi6) and MBF (Mbp1-Swi6). Activation of these factors ultimately depends on the G1 cyclin Cln3. Results: To determine the transcriptional targets of Cln3 and their dependence on SBF or MBF, we first have used DNA microarrays to interrogate gene expression upon Cln3 overexpression in synchronized cultures of strains lacking components of SBF and/or MBF. Secondly, we have integrated this expression dataset together with other heterogeneous data sources into a single probabilistic model based on Bayesian statistics. Our analysis has produced more than 200 transcription factor-target assignments, validated by ChIP assays and by functional enrichment. Our predictions show higher internal coherence and predictive power than previous classifications. Our results support a model whereby SBF and MBF may be differentially activated by Cln3. Conclusions: Integration of heterogeneous genome-wide datasets is key to building accurate transcriptional networks. By such integration, we provide here a reliable transcriptional network at the G1-to-S transition in the budding yeast cell cycle. Our results suggest that to improve the reliability of predictions we need to feed our models with more informative experimental data.

Regulation of recombination at yeast nuclear pores controls repair and triplet repeat stability.

Secondary structure-forming DNA sequences such as CAG repeats interfere with replication and repair, provoking fork stalling, chromosome fragility, and recombination. In budding yeast, we found that expanded CAG repeats are more likely than unexpanded repeats to localize to the nuclear periphery. This positioning is transient, occurs in late S phase, requires replication, and is associated with decreased subnuclear mobility of the locus. In contrast to persistent double-stranded breaks, expanded CAG repeats at the nuclear envelope associate with pores but not with the inner nuclear membrane protein Mps3. Relocation requires Nup84 and the Slx5/8 SUMO-dependent ubiquitin ligase but not Rad51, Mec1, or Tel1. Importantly, the presence of the Nup84 pore subcomplex and Slx5/8 suppresses CAG repeat fragility and instability. Repeat instability in nup84, slx5, or slx8 mutant cells arises through aberrant homologous recombination and is distinct from instability arising from the loss of ligase 4-dependent end-joining. Genetic and physical analysis of Rad52 sumoylation and binding at the CAG tract suggests that Slx5/8 targets sumoylated Rad52 for degradation at the pore to facilitate recovery from acute replication stress by promoting replication fork restart. We thereby confirmed that the relocation of damage to nuclear pores plays an important role in a naturally occurring repair process.

Negative feedback regulation of calcineurin-dependent Prz1 transcription factor by the CaMKK-CaMK1 axis in fission yeast

Calcium signals trigger the translocation of the Prz1 transcription factor from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. The process is regulated by the calciumactivated phosphatase calcineurin, which activates Prz1 thereby maintaining active transcription during calcium signalling. When calcium signalling ceases, Prz1 is inactivated by phosphorylation and exported to the cytoplasm. In budding yeast and mammalian cells, different kinases have been reported to counter calcineurin activity and regulate nuclear export. Here, we show that the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase Cmk1 is first phosphorylated and activated by the newly identified kinase CaMKK2 homologue, Ckk2, in response to Ca2+. Then, active Cmk1 binds, phosphorylates and inactivates Prz1 transcription activity whilst at the same time cmk1 expression is enhanced by Prz1 in response to Ca2+. Furthermore, Cdc25 phosphatase is also phosphorylated by Cmk1, inducing cell cycle arrest in response to an increase in Ca2+. Moreover, cmk1 deletion shows a high tolerance to chronic exposure to Ca2+, due to the lack of cell cycle inhibition and elevated Prz1 activity. This work reveals that Cmk1 kinase activated by the newly identified Ckk2 counteracts calcineurin function by negatively regulating Prz1 activity which in turn is involved in activating cmk1 gene transcription. These results are the first insights into Cmk1 and Ckk2 function in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Yeast RNase III triggers polyadenylation-independent transcription termination

Transcription termination of messenger RNA (mRNA) is normally achieved by polyadenylation followed by Rat1p-dependent 5'-3' exoribonuleolytic degradation of the downstream transcript. Here we show that the yeast ortholog of the dsRNA-specific ribonuclease III (Rnt1p) may trigger Rat1p-dependent termination of RNA transcripts that fail to terminate near polyadenylation signals. Rnt1p cleavage sites were found downstream of several genes, and the deletion of RNT1 resulted in transcription readthrough. Inactivation of Rat1p impaired Rnt1p-dependent termination and resulted in the accumulation of 3' end cleavage products. These results support a model for transcription termination in which cotranscriptional cleavage by Rnt1p provides access for exoribonucleases in the absence of polyadenylation signals.

Dissecting cell cycle protein complexes using the pptimized yeast cytosine deaminase protein-fragment complementation assay “You too can play with an edge”

Les protéines sont les produits finaux de la machinerie génétique. Elles jouent des rôles essentiels dans la définition de la structure, de l'intégrité et de la dynamique de la cellule afin de promouvoir les diverses transformations chimiques requises dans le métabolisme et dans la transmission des signaux biochimique. Nous savons que la doctrine centrale de la biologie moléculaire: un gène = un ARN messager = une protéine, est une simplification grossière du système biologique. En effet, plusieurs ARN messagers peuvent provenir d’un seul gène grâce à l’épissage alternatif. De plus, une protéine peut adopter plusieurs fonctions au courant de sa vie selon son état de modification post-traductionelle, sa conformation et son interaction avec d’autres protéines. La formation de complexes protéiques peut, en elle-même, être déterminée par l’état de modifications des protéines influencées par le contexte génétique, les compartiments subcellulaires, les conditions environmentales ou être intrinsèque à la croissance et la division cellulaire. Les complexes protéiques impliqués dans la régulation du cycle cellulaire sont particulièrement difficiles à disséquer car ils ne se forment qu’au cours de phases spécifiques du cycle cellulaire, ils sont fortement régulés par les modifications post-traductionnelles et peuvent se produire dans tous les compartiments subcellulaires. À ce jour, aucune méthode générale n’a été développée pour permettre une dissection fine de ces complexes macromoléculaires. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'établir et de démontrer une nouvelle stratégie pour disséquer les complexes protéines formés lors du cycle cellulaire de la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae). Dans cette thèse, je décris le développement et l'optimisation d'une stratégie simple de sélection basée sur un essai de complémentation de fragments protéiques en utilisant la cytosine déaminase de la levure comme sonde (PCA OyCD). En outre, je décris une série d'études de validation du PCA OyCD afin de l’utiliser pour disséquer les mécanismes d'activation des facteurs de transcription et des interactions protéine-protéines (IPPs) entre les régulateurs du cycle cellulaire. Une caractéristique clé du PCA OyCD est qu'il peut être utilisé pour détecter à la fois la formation et la dissociation des IPPs et émettre un signal détectable (la croissance des cellules) pour les deux types de sélections. J'ai appliqué le PCA OyCD pour disséquer les interactions entre SBF et MBF, deux facteurs de transcription clés régulant la transition de la phase G1 à la phase S. SBF et MBF sont deux facteurs de transcription hétérodimériques composés de deux sous-unités : une protéine qui peut lier directement l’ADN (Swi4 ou Mbp1, respectivement) et une protéine commune contenant un domain d’activation de la transcription appelée Swi6. J'ai appliqué le PCA OyCD afin de générer un mutant de Swi6 qui restreint ses activités transcriptionnelles à SBF, abolissant l’activité MBF. Nous avons isolé des souches portant des mutations dans le domaine C-terminal de Swi6, préalablement identifié comme responsable dans la formation de l’interaction avec Swi4 et Mbp1, et également important pour les activités de SBF et MBF. Nos résultats appuient un modèle où Swi6 subit un changement conformationnel lors de la liaison à Swi4 ou Mbp1. De plus, ce mutant de Swi6 a été utilisé pour disséquer le mécanisme de régulation de l’entrée de la cellule dans un nouveau cycle de division cellulaire appelé « START ». Nous avons constaté que le répresseur de SBF et MBF nommé Whi5 se lie directement au domaine C-terminal de Swi6. Finalement, j'ai appliqué le PCA OyCD afin de disséquer les complexes protéiques de la kinase cycline-dépendante de la levure nommé Cdk1. Cdk1 est la kinase essentielle qui régule la progression du cycle cellulaire et peut phosphoryler un grand nombre de substrats différents en s'associant à l'une des neuf protéines cycline régulatrice (Cln1-3, Clb1-6). Je décris une stratégie à haut débit, voir à une échelle génomique, visant à identifier les partenaires d'interaction de Cdk1 et d’y associer la cycline appropriée(s) requise(s) à l’observation d’une interaction en utilisant le PCA OyCD et des souches délétées pour chacune des cyclines. Mes résultats nous permettent d’identifier la phase(s) du cycle cellulaire où Cdk1 peut phosphoryler un substrat particulier et la fonction potentielle ou connue de Cdk1 pendant cette phase. Par exemple, nous avons identifié que l’interaction entre Cdk1 et la γ-tubuline (Tub4) est dépendante de Clb3. Ce résultat est conforme au rôle de Tub4 dans la nucléation et la croissance des faisceaux mitotiques émanant des centromères. Cette stratégie peut également être appliquée à l’étude d'autres IPPs qui sont contrôlées par des sous-unités régulatrices.

Ctp1 and the MRN-complex are required for endonucleolytic Rec12 removal with release of a single class of oligonucleotides in fission yeast

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are formed during meiosis by the action of the topoisomerase-like Spo11/Rec12 protein, which remains covalently bound to the 5' ends of the broken DNA. Spo11/Rec12 removal is required for resection and initiation of strand invasion for DSB repair. It was previously shown that budding yeast Spo11, the homolog of fission yeast Rec12, is removed from DNA by endonucleolytic cleavage. The release of two Spo11 bound oligonucleotide classes, heterogeneous in length, led to the conjecture of asymmetric cleavage. In fission yeast, we found only one class of oligonucleotides bound to Rec12 ranging in length from 17 to 27 nucleotides. Ctp1, Rad50, and the nuclease activity of Rad32, the fission yeast homolog of Mre11, are required for endonucleolytic Rec12 removal. Further, we detected no Rec12 removal in a rad50S mutant. However, strains with additional loss of components localizing to the linear elements, Hop1 or Mek1, showed some Rec12 removal, a restoration depending on Ctp1 and Rad32 nuclease activity. But, deletion of hop1 or mek1 did not suppress the phenotypes of ctp1Delta and the nuclease dead mutant (rad32-D65N). We discuss what consequences for subsequent repair a single class of Rec12-oligonucleotides may have during meiotic recombination in fission yeast in comparison to two classes of Spo11-oligonucleotides in budding yeast. Furthermore, we hypothesize on the participation of Hop1 and Mek1 in Rec12 removal.