Bioethics in Health Policy Development: A Primer for Decision-Makers

Article

Are clinical documents optimised for patient safety? A critical analysis of patient safety outcomes using the EDA error model

Iatrogenic errors and patient safety in clinical processes are an increasing concern. The quality of process information in hardcopy or electronic form can heavily influence clinical behaviour and decision making errors. Little work has been undertaken to assess the safety impact of clinical process planning documents guiding the clinical actions and decisions. This paper investigates the clinical process documents used in elective surgery and their impact on latent and active clinical errors. Eight clinicians from a large health trust underwent extensive semi- structured interviews to understand their use of clinical documents, and their perceived impact on errors and patient safety. Samples of the key types of document used were analysed. Theories of latent organisational and active errors from the literature were combined with the EDA semiotics model of behaviour and decision making to propose the EDA Error Model. This model enabled us to identify perceptual, evaluation, knowledge and action error types and approaches to reducing their causes. The EDA error model was then used to analyse sample documents and identify error sources and controls. Types of knowledge artefact structures used in the documents were identified and assessed in terms of safety impact. This approach was combined with analysis of the questionnaire findings using existing error knowledge from the literature. The results identified a number of document and knowledge artefact issues that give rise to latent and active errors and also issues concerning medical culture and teamwork together with recommendations for further work.

The engine or the caboose: health policy in developing countries

A discussion of health policy in developing countries is presented. It argues that developing countries must adopt a progressive approach to health policy which rejects the two-tiered system of public and private health care. However, it also points out that ideology is not sufficient to maintain support. A progressive health system must utilize administrative and social and behavioral sciences to achieve effectiveness and efficiency in health care delivery. It cannot ignore these goals any more than a private health care system can.

Economic analysis in health care regulation : three essays

ABSTRACT - It is the purpose of the present thesis to emphasize, through a series of examples, the need and value of appropriate pre-analysis of the impact of health care regulation. Specifically, the thesis presents three papers on the theme of regulation in different aspects of health care provision and financing. The first two consist of economic analyses of the impact of health care regulation and the third comprises the creation of an instrument for supporting economic analysis of health care regulation, namely in the field of evaluation of health care programs. The first paper develops a model of health plan competition and pricing in order to understand the dynamics of health plan entry and exit in the presence of switching costs and alternative health premium payment systems. We build an explicit model of death spirals, in which profitmaximizing competing health plans find it optimal to adopt a pattern of increasing relative prices culminating in health plan exit. We find the steady-state numerical solution for the price sequence and the plan’s optimal length of life through simulation and do some comparative statics. This allows us to show that using risk adjusted premiums and imposing price floors are effective at reducing death spirals and switching costs, while having employees pay a fixed share of the premium enhances death spirals and increases switching costs. Price regulation of pharmaceuticals is one of the cost control measures adopted by the Portuguese government, as in many European countries. When such regulation decreases the products’ real price over time, it may create an incentive for product turnover. Using panel data for the period of 1997 through 2003 on drug packages sold in Portuguese pharmacies, the second paper addresses the question of whether price control policies create an incentive for product withdrawal. Our work builds the product survival literature by accounting for unobservable product characteristics and heterogeneity among consumers when constructing quality, price control and competition indexes. These indexes are then used as covariates in a Cox proportional hazard model. We find that, indeed, price control measures increase the probability of exit, and that such effect is not verified in OTC market where no such price regulation measures exist. We also find quality to have a significant positive impact on product survival. In the third paper, we develop a microsimulation discrete events model (MSDEM) for costeffectiveness analysis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus treatment, simulating individual paths from antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation to death. Four driving forces determine the course of events: CD4+ cell count, viral load resistance and adherence. A novel feature of the model with respect to the previous MSDEMs is that distributions of time to event depend on individuals’ characteristics and past history. Time to event was modeled using parametric survival analysis. Events modeled include: viral suppression, regimen switch due virological failure, regimen switch due to other reasons, resistance development, hospitalization, AIDS events, and death. Disease progression is structured according to therapy lines and the model is parameterized with cohort Portuguese observational data. An application of the model is presented comparing the cost-effectiveness ART initiation with two nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) plus one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor(NNRTI) to two NRTI plus boosted protease inhibitor (PI/r) in HIV- 1 infected individuals. We find 2NRTI+NNRTI to be a dominant strategy. Results predicted by the model reproduce those of the data used for parameterization and are in line with those published in the literature.

Starting well: Gender, care and health in the family context

In this article we present a critique of a series of public policy documents that aim at improvement in health for the general population, particularly families, but fail to recognize or appreciate the implications of gender for the everyday and the long-term experiences of family members. Drawing upon considerations of gender, families, health time and space and previous theoretical work (McKie et al, 2002), we propose the concept of healthscapes to aid the analysis and development of public policies. A healthscapes approach allows analysis of health policy within the diverse and multi-dimensional notions of time, space and gender that infuse the lifecourse. We assert that consideration of the gendered and generational project of caring particularly in relation to the (re)production of health, should involve a reflective inter-play between theory research and policy.

Work and Inter-subjectivity: a theoretical reflection on its dialectics in the field of health and nursing

This theoretical reflection intends to show the inter-subjective relationship that takes place in health and nursing practices under the following theoretical perspectives: Institutional Analysis, Psychodynamics of Labor and the Theory of Communicative Action, with an emphasis on the latter. Linking these concepts to the Marxist approach to work in the field of health emerges from recognizing the need for its continuous reconstruction-in this case, with a view to understand the interaction and communication intrinsic to work in action. The theory of Communicative Action seeks to consider these two inextricable dimensions: work as productive action and as interaction. The first corresponds to instrumental action based on technical rules with a production-guided rationale. The second refers to the interaction that takes place as communicative action and seeks understanding among subjects. We assume that adopting this theoretical perspective in the analysis of health and nursing practices opens new possibilities for clarifying its social and historical process and inter-subjective connections.

Health policy update /

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Volunteering for the Commonwealth Games: what can realist synthesis contribute to health policy making?

The aim of this thesis was to investigate, using the real-time test case of the 2014 Commonwealth Games, whether the realist synthesis methodology could contribute to the making of health policy in a meaningful way. This was done by looking at two distinct research questions: first, whether realist synthesis could contribute new insights to the health policymaking process, and second, whether the 2014 Commonwealth Games volunteer programme was likely to have any significant, measurable, impact on health inequalities experienced by large sections of the host population. The 2014 Commonwealth Games legacy laid out ambitious plans for the event, in which it was anticipated that it would provide explicit opportunities to impact positively on health inequalities. By using realist synthesis to unpick the theories underpinning the volunteer programme, the review identifies the population subgroups for whom the programme was likely to be successful, how this could be achieved and in what contexts. In answer to the first research question, the review found that while realist methods were able to provide a more nuanced exposition of the impacts of the Games volunteer programme on health inequalities than previous traditional reviews had been able to provide, there were several drawbacks to using the method. It was found to be resource-intensive and complex, encouraging the exploration of a much wider set of literatures at the expense of an in-depth grasp of the complexities of those literatures. In answer to the second research question, the review found that the Games were, if anything, likely to exacerbate health inequalities because the programme was designed in such a way that individuals recruited to it were most likely to be those in least need of the additional mental and physical health benefits that Games volunteering was designed to provide. The following thesis details the approach taken to investigate both the realist approach to evidence synthesis and the likelihood that the 2014 Games volunteer programme would yield the expected results.

Algunas reflexiones sobre el análisis de la implementación de políticas de salud a nivel local : El caso de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) en el Municipio de La Plata

En este trabajo se presenta parte del enfoque tomado en una investigación sobre la dinámica involucrada en la construcción de políticas públicas en salud a través de un análisis de caso. El caso se ha construido tomado a la atención primaria de la salud como punto nodal y en particular se han considerado los procesos participativos que se supone forman parte central de ésta. Para ello se tomó como unidad de análisis a los actores directamente involucrados en implementación de acciones tendientes al fortalecimiento de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) a nivel local. Se realizó un relevamiento empírico de carácter cualitativo, realizado en dos etapas, con un total de 42 entrevistas a personal de los Centros de Atención Primaria de la Salud del Municipio de La Plata. Entre las conclusiones se presenta un panorama de la dinámica inherente a la implementación de la APS, particularmente en lo que a los procesos participativos refiere, considerando lo acontecido en prácticamente una década.

Algunas reflexiones sobre el análisis de la implementación de políticas de salud a nivel local : El caso de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) en el Municipio de La Plata

En este trabajo se presenta parte del enfoque tomado en una investigación sobre la dinámica involucrada en la construcción de políticas públicas en salud a través de un análisis de caso. El caso se ha construido tomado a la atención primaria de la salud como punto nodal y en particular se han considerado los procesos participativos que se supone forman parte central de ésta. Para ello se tomó como unidad de análisis a los actores directamente involucrados en implementación de acciones tendientes al fortalecimiento de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) a nivel local. Se realizó un relevamiento empírico de carácter cualitativo, realizado en dos etapas, con un total de 42 entrevistas a personal de los Centros de Atención Primaria de la Salud del Municipio de La Plata. Entre las conclusiones se presenta un panorama de la dinámica inherente a la implementación de la APS, particularmente en lo que a los procesos participativos refiere, considerando lo acontecido en prácticamente una década.

Algunas reflexiones sobre el análisis de la implementación de políticas de salud a nivel local : El caso de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) en el Municipio de La Plata

En este trabajo se presenta parte del enfoque tomado en una investigación sobre la dinámica involucrada en la construcción de políticas públicas en salud a través de un análisis de caso. El caso se ha construido tomado a la atención primaria de la salud como punto nodal y en particular se han considerado los procesos participativos que se supone forman parte central de ésta. Para ello se tomó como unidad de análisis a los actores directamente involucrados en implementación de acciones tendientes al fortalecimiento de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) a nivel local. Se realizó un relevamiento empírico de carácter cualitativo, realizado en dos etapas, con un total de 42 entrevistas a personal de los Centros de Atención Primaria de la Salud del Municipio de La Plata. Entre las conclusiones se presenta un panorama de la dinámica inherente a la implementación de la APS, particularmente en lo que a los procesos participativos refiere, considerando lo acontecido en prácticamente una década.

Algunas reflexiones sobre el análisis de la implementación de políticas de salud a nivel local : El caso de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) en el Municipio de La Plata

En este trabajo se presenta parte del enfoque tomado en una investigación sobre la dinámica involucrada en la construcción de políticas públicas en salud a través de un análisis de caso. El caso se ha construido tomado a la atención primaria de la salud como punto nodal y en particular se han considerado los procesos participativos que se supone forman parte central de ésta. Para ello se tomó como unidad de análisis a los actores directamente involucrados en implementación de acciones tendientes al fortalecimiento de la Atención Primaria de la Salud (APS) a nivel local. Se realizó un relevamiento empírico de carácter cualitativo, realizado en dos etapas, con un total de 42 entrevistas a personal de los Centros de Atención Primaria de la Salud del Municipio de La Plata. Entre las conclusiones se presenta un panorama de la dinámica inherente a la implementación de la APS, particularmente en lo que a los procesos participativos refiere, considerando lo acontecido en prácticamente una década.

Environment, health and safety policy in small construction sites: an analysis of the situation in Brazil

This paper analyzes the safety, environmental and occupational health of workers in the small construction industry in Brazil. In this sector there are still many unsafe practices, which are very common in small work sites. We used a qualitative approach to understand these problems by long interviews with people who work directly in small construction sites, including occupational physicians, civil engineers, safety engineers, safety technicians, general foremen, construction workers, labor unionists and auditors. This paper aims to demonstrate that the "invisibility" of the small sites workers makes them less safe and therefore more prone to accidents, also weakening their health. The results show that small constructions workers are less visible to society and supervision because of their short periods of work. Therefore, they are also uncovered to the rigorous applicability of principles of safety and accident prevention. Thus, it has been seen in this field of work a precarious application of NR - 18, which was specifically made for the construction sites and it needs simplification to meet normative characteristics of small construction sites. In the State of Rio de Janeiro, some laws on small sites were recently created and implemented. This study concludes that the rules to work are not being taken as seriously as the legislation determinates, remaining practically unknown by many professionals, from the plot command, supervisors, engineers, architects and technicians who work on construction sites. This ignorance creates space for the lack of safety and consequently to accidents, leading to by weakness in the workers health. Therefore, the work process needs to be modified, the safety regulation must be disseminated through safer practices, promoting employee health and ensure that the work of small sites can be visible, especially ensuring the construction workers health and safety.

Health care policy analysis of Medicaid's early and periodic screening, diagnosis, and treatment (EPSDT) benefit in Colorado

The purpose of this thesis is to identify "best practice" recommendations for successful implementation of the EPSDT outreach program at Memorial Health System's Hospital for Children in Colorado Springs through a policy analysis of Medicaid EPSDT services in Colorado. A successful program at Memorial will increase education and awareness of EPSDT services, enrollment, and access to and utilization of health care services for eligible children. Methodology utilized in this study included questionnaires designed for the EPSDT contract administrator and outreach coordinators/workers; analysis of current federal and state policies; and studies conducted at the federal and state level, and by various advocacy groups. The need for this analysis of EPSDT came about in part through an awareness of increasingly high numbers of children in poverty and who are uninsured. Though the percentage of children living in poverty in Colorado is slightly below the national average (see Table 2), according to data analyzed by The Annie E. Casey Foundation, the percentage of children (0-18) living in poverty in Colorado increased from 10% in 2000 to 16% in 2006, a dramatic increase of 60% surpassed by only one other state in the nation (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2008). By comparison, the U.S. percentage of children in poverty during the same time frame rose from 17% to 18% (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2008). What kind of health care services are available to this vulnerable and growing group of Coloradans, and what are the barriers that affect their enrollment in, access to and utilization of these health care services? Barriers identified included difficulty with the application process; system and process issues; a lack of providers; and a lack of awareness and knowledge of EPSDT. Fiscal restraints and legislation at the federal and state level are also barriers to increasing enrollment and access to services. Outreach services are a critical component of providing EPSDT services, and there were several recommendations regarding outreach and case management that will benefit the program in the future. Through this analysis and identification of a broad range of barriers, a clearer picture emerged of current challenges within the EPSDT program as well as a broad range of strategies and recommendations to address these challenges. Through increased education and advocacy for EPSDT and the services it encompasses; stronger collaboration and cooperation between all groups involved, including providing a Medical Home for all eligible children; and new legislation putting more money and focus on comprehensive health care for low-income uninsured children; enrollment, access to and utilization of developmentally appropriate and quality health care services can be achieved. ^