The effects of aging on gene expression in the hypothalamus and cortex of mice

A better understanding of the molecular effects of aging in the brain may help to reveal important aspects of organismal aging, as well as processes that lead to age-related brain dysfunction. In this study, we have examined differences in gene expression in the hypothalamus and cortex of young and aged mice by using high-density oligonucleotide arrays. A number of key genes involved in neuronal structure and signaling are differentially expressed in both the aged hypothalamus and cortex, including synaptotagmin I, cAMP-dependent protein kinase C β, apolipoprotein E, protein phosphatase 2A, and prostaglandin D. Misregulation of these proteins may contribute to age-related memory deficits and neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, many proteases that play essential roles in regulating neuropeptide metabolism, amyloid precursor protein processing, and neuronal apoptosis are up-regulated in the aged brain and likely contribute significantly to brain aging. Finally, a subset of these genes whose expression is affected by aging are oppositely affected by exposure of mice to an enriched environment, suggesting that these genes may play important roles in learning and memory.

Investigating the thymopoiesis stimulating property of interleukin-21 in aging mice

La vaccination est largement utilisée pour la génération de lymphocytes T spécifiques contre les tumeurs. Malheureusement, cette stratégie n'est pas adaptée aux personnes âgées car leur thymus régresse avec l'âge conduisant ainsi à une baisse dans la production de cellules T et à l'accumulation de cellules immunitaires âgées ayant des défauts liés à leurs stimulations. Comme il a été démontré auparavant que L’IL-21 est capable d’induire des fonctions thymiques, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’injection d’IL-21 à des souris âgées stimulera la thymopoïèse. Nos résultats montrent que l’administration de l’IL-21 augmente le nombre absolu de thymocytes chez les souris âgées et augmente la migration de ces cellules vers la périphérie ou ils contribuent à la diversité du TCR. De plus les cellules T en périphérie expriment un niveau plus élevé de miR181-a, et par conséquent moins de phosphatase comme SHP2, DUSP5/6 qui inhibent le TCR. En vaccinant des souris âgées avec le peptide Trp2, les souris traitées avec l’IL-21 montrent un retard dans la croissance des cellules B16 tumorales. Cette étude montre que l’IL-21 pourrait être utilisé comme stratégie pour le rétablissement du systeme immunitaire chez les personnes âgées.

DHEA and testosterone therapies in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected rats are associated with thymic changes

The ability of the gonadal hormones to influence diverse immunological functions during the course of several infections has been extensively studied in the latest decades. Testosterone has a suppressive effect on immune response of vertebrates and increases susceptibility toward numerous parasitic diseases. Dehydroepiandrosterone is an abundant steroid hormone secreted by the human adrenal cortex and it is considered potent immune-activator. In this paper, it was examined the effects of DHEA and testosterone supplementation in the thymic atrophy in rats infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, by comparing blood parasitism, thymocyte proliferation, TNF-alpha and IL-12 levels. Our data point in the direction that DHEA treatment triggered enhanced thymocyte proliferation as compared to its infected counterparts and reduced production of TNF-alpha during the acute phase of infection. Oppositely, the lowest values for cells proliferation and IL-12 concentrations were reached in testosterone-supplied animals. The combined treatment testosterone and DHEA improves the effectiveness of the host`s immune response, reducing blood parasites and the immunosuppressive effects of male androgens besides increasing IL-12 concentrations and decreasing TNF-alpha levels. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Aging preferentially affects molecular pathways implicated in development and disease of myelinating glial cells

The central and peripheral nervous systems are involved in multiple age-dependent neurological deficits that are often attributed to alterations in function of myelinating glial cells. However, the molecular events that underlie the age-related decline of glial cell function are unknown. We used Schwann cells as a model to study biological processes affected in glial cells by aging. We comprehensively profiled gene expression of the Schwann cellrich mouse sciatic nerve throughout life, from day of birth until senescence (840 days of age). We combined the aging data with the microarray transcriptional data obtained using nerves isolated from Schwann cell-specific neuropathy-inducing mutants MPZCre/+/Lpin1fE2−3/fE2−3 , MPZCre/+/ScapfE1/fE1 and Pmp22-null mice. The majority of age related transcripts were also affected in the analyzed mouse models of neuropathy (54.4%) and in development (59.5%) indicating a high level of overlapping in implicated molecular pathways. We observed that compared to peripheral nerve development, dynamically changing expression profiles in aging have opposite (anticorrelated) orientation while they copy the orientation of transcriptional changes observed in analyzed neuropathy models. Subsequent clustering and biological annotation of dynamically changing transcripts revealed that the processes most significantly deregulated in aging include inflammatory/immune response and lipid biosynthesis/metabolism. Importantly, the changes in these pathways were also observed in myelinated oligodendrocyte-rich optic nerves of aged mice, albeit with lower magnitude. This observation suggests that similar biological processes are affected in aging glial cells in central and peripheral nervous systems, however with different dynamics. Our data, which provide the first comprehensive comparison of molecular changes in glial cells in three distinct biological conditions comprising development, aging and disease, provide not only a new inside into the molecular alterations underlying neural system aging but also identify target pathways for potential therapeutic approaches to prevent or delay complications associated with age-related and inherited forms of neuropathies. *Current address: Department of Physiology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA.

Aging preferentially affects molecular pathways implicated in development and disease of myelinating glial cells

The central and peripheral nervous systems are involved in multiple agedependent neurological deficits that are often attributed to alterations in function of myelinating glial cells. However, the molecular events that underlie the age-related decline of glial cell function are unknown. We used Schwann cells as a model to study biological processes affected in glial cells by aging. We comprehensively profiled gene expression of the Schwann cell-rich mouse sciatic nerve throughout life, from day of birth until senescence (840 days of age). We combined the aging data with the microarray transcriptional data obtained using nerves isolated from Schwann cell-specific neuropathy-inducing mutants MPZCre/þ/Lpin1fE2-3/fE2-3, MPZCre/þ/ScapfE1/fE1 and Pmp22-null mice. A majority of age related transcripts were also affected in the analyzed mouse models of neuropathy (54.4%) and in development (59.5%) indicating a high level of overlapping in implicated molecular pathways. We observed that compared to peripheral nerve development, dynamically changing expression profiles in aging have opposite (anticorrelated) orientation while they copy the orientation of transcriptional changes observed in analyzed neuropathy models. Subsequent clustering and biological annotation of dynamically changing transcripts revealed that the processes most significantly deregulated in aging include inflammatory/ immune response and lipid biosynthesis/metabolism. Importantly, the changes in these pathways were also observed in myelinated oligodendrocyte- rich optic nerves of aged mice, albeit with lower magnitude. This observation suggests that similar biological processes are affected in aging glial cells in central and peripheral nervous systems, however with different dynamics. Our data, which provide the first comprehensive comparison of molecular changes in glial cells in three distinct biological conditions comprising development, aging and disease, provide not only a new inside into the molecular alterations underlying neural system aging but also identify target pathways for potential therapeutical approaches to prevent or delay complications associated with age-related and inherited forms of neuropathies.

Undifferentiated and differentiated PC12 cells protected by huprines against injury induced by hydrogen peroxide

Oxidative stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) plays a central role in the stress. Huprines, a group of potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), have shown a broad cholinergic pharmacological profile. Recently, it has been observed that huprine X (HX) improves cognition in non transgenic middle aged mice and shows a neuroprotective activity (increased synaptophysin expression) in 3xTg-AD mice. Consequently, in the present experiments the potential neuroprotective effect of huprines (HX, HY, HZ) has been analyzed in two different in vitro conditions: undifferentiated and NGF-differentiated PC12 cells. Cells were subjected to oxidative insult (H2O2, 200 µM) and the protective effects of HX, HY and HZ (0.01 µM- 1 µM) were analyzed after a pre-incubation period of 24 and 48 hours. All huprines showed protective effects in both undifferentiated and NGF-differentiated cells, however only in differentiated cells the effect was dependent on cholinergic receptors as atropine (muscarinic antagonist, 0.1 µM) and mecamylamine (nicotinic antagonist, 100 µM) reverted the neuroprotection action of huprines. The decrease in SOD activity observed after oxidative insult was overcome in the presence of huprines and this effect was not mediated by muscarinic or nicotinic receptors. In conclusion, huprines displayed neuroprotective properties as previously observed in in vivo studies. In addition, these effects were mediated by cholinergic receptors only in differentiated cells. However, a non-cholinergic mechanism, probably through an increase in SOD activity, seems to be also involved in the neuroprotective effects of huprines.

The Vitamin A Derivative All-Trans Retinoic Acid Repairs Amyloid-β-Induced Double-Strand Breaks in Neural Cells and in the Murine Neocortex.

The amyloid-β peptide or Aβ is the key player in the amyloid-cascade hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease. Aβ appears to trigger cell death but also production of double-strand breaks (DSBs) in aging and Alzheimer's disease. All-trans retinoic acid (RA), a derivative of vitamin A, was already known for its neuroprotective effects against the amyloid cascade. It diminishes, for instance, the production of Aβ peptides and their oligomerisation. In the present work we investigated the possible implication of RA receptor (RAR) in repair of Aβ-induced DSBs. We demonstrated that RA, as well as RAR agonist Am80, but not AGN 193109 antagonist, repair Aβ-induced DSBs in SH-SY5Y cells and an astrocytic cell line as well as in the murine cortical tissue of young and aged mice. The nonhomologous end joining pathway and the Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated kinase were shown to be involved in RA-mediated DSBs repair in the SH-SY5Y cells. Our data suggest that RA, besides increasing cell viability in the cortex of young and even of aged mice, might also result in targeted DNA repair of genes important for cell or synaptic maintenance. This phenomenon would remain functional up to a point when Aβ increase and RA decrease probably lead to a pathological state.

L’effet du vieillissement sur les cellules souches neurales adultes

La neurogenèse persiste à l’âge adulte dans deux régions du système nerveux central (SNC) des mammifères : la zone sous-ventriculaire (SVZ) du cerveau antérieur et la zone sous-granulaire (SGZ) de l’hippocampe. Cette neurogenèse est possible grâce à la capacité de prolifération des cellules souches présentes dans les niches de la SVZ et la SGZ, mais en vieillissant, le cerveau subit une diminution dramatique du nombre de cellules souches neurales adultes (CSNa), une diminution de la prolifération cellulaire et une altération des niches de neurogenèse. Cependant, une importante question reste sans réponse : comment la perte tardive des CSNa est temporellement reliée aux changements de l’activité de prolifération et de la structure de la principale niche de neurogenèse (la SVZ)? Afin d’avoir un aperçu sur les événements initiaux, nous avons examiné les changements des CSNa et de leur niche dans la SVZ entre le jeune âge et l’âge moyen. La niche de la SVZ des souris d’âge moyen (12 mois) subit une réduction de l’expression des marqueurs de plusieurs sous-populations de précurseurs neuraux en comparaison avec les souris jeunes adultes (2 mois). Anatomiquement, cela est associé avec des anomalies cytologiques, incluant une atrophie générale de la SVZ, une perte de la couche de cellules sousépendymaires par endroit et l’accumulation de gouttelettes lipidiques de grande taille dans l’épendyme. Fonctionnellement, ces changements sont corrélés avec une diminution de l’activité de la SVZ et une réduction du nombre de nouveaux neurones arrivant aux bulbes olfactifs. Pour déterminer si les CSNa de la SVZ ont subi des changements visibles, nous avons évalué les paramètres clés des CSNa in vivo et in vitro. La culture cellulaire montre qu’un nombre équivalent de CSNa ayant la capacité de former des neurosphères peut être isolé du cerveau du jeune adulte et d’âge moyen. Cependant, à l’âge moyen, les précurseurs neuraux semblent moins sensibles aux facteurs de croissance durant leur différenciation in vitro. Les CSNa donnent des signes de latence in vivo puisque leur capacité d’incorporation et de rétention du BrdU diminue. Ensemble, ces données démontrent que, tôt dans le processus du vieillissement, les CSNa et leur niche dans la SVZ subissent des changements significatifs, et suggèrent que la perte de CSNa liée au vieillissement est secondaire à ces événements.

Influence de TDP-43 sur la régulation de hnRNP A1 : un impact potentiel sur la sclérose latérale amyotrophique

La SLA est une maladie neurodégénérative fatale se déclenchant tardivement. Elle est caractérisée par la perte des neurones moteurs supérieurs et inférieurs. Jusqu’à présent, aucun traitement ne permet de ralentir ou de guérir la maladie de façon robuste. De récentes découvertes portant sur TDP-43 et hnRNP A1 y ont identifié des mutations reliées à des cas de SLA. Comme les deux possèdent de multiples fonctions dans le métabolisme de l’ARN, l’impact de ces mutations devient difficile à définir. Notre hypothèse est que TDP-43 régule hnRNP A1 et que les mutations causant la SLA dérégulent ce mécanisme, aboutissant ainsi à un impact majeur sur la vulnérabilité des neurones moteurs. Nos résultats démontrent que TDP-43 lie l’ARNm de hnRNP A1, mais n’affecte pas sa stabilité. En revanche, TDP-43 réprime l’expression de hnRNP A1. Ce mécanisme pourrait être appliqué in vivo où le ratio protéique hnRNP A1B/A1 augmente chez les souris âgées et davantage chez les TDP-43A315T dans la région cervicale et lombaire de la moelle épinière. Cette différence n’est pas causée par un défaut de l’épissage alternatif. Aussi, la mutation TDP-43A315T serait davantage responsable de cette différence que la surexpression de TDP-43 (résultats obtenus en culture). L’impact d’une telle augmentation sur la cellule pourrait être la formation d’agrégats puisque la forme hnRNP A1B possède quatre domaines de fibrillation de plus que hnRNP A1. Nos résultats pourraient donc fournir un mécanisme potentiel de la formation d’inclusions cytoplasmiques reconnues comme étant une des caractéristiques pathologiques principales de la SLA.

Age-related effects of Ginkgo biloba extract on synaptic plasticity and excitability

EGb 761 is a standardized extract from the Ginkgo biloba leaf and is purported to improve age-related memory impairment. The acute and chronic effect of EGb 761 on synaptic transmission and plasticity in hippocampal slices from young adult (8-12 weeks) and aged (18-24 months) C57B1/6 mice was tested because hippocampal plasticity is believed to be a key component of memory. Acutely applied EGb 761 significantly increased neuronal excitability in slices from aged mice by reducing the population spike threshold and increased the early phase of long-term potentiation, though there was no effect in slices from young adults. In chronically treated mice fed for 30 days with an EGb 761-supplemented diet, EGb 761 significantly increased the population spike threshold and long-term potentiation in slices from aged animals, but had no effect on slices from young adults. The rapid effects of EGb 761 on plasticity indicate a direct interaction with the glutamatergic system and raise interesting implications with respect to a mechanism explaining its effect on cognitive enhancement in human subjects experiencing dementia. (C) 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Influências da idade e do ambiente sobre o curso temporal da infecção pelo vírus da Dengue acentuada por anticorpo heterólogo em modelo murino: ensaios comportamentais e histopatológicos

Por conta de que o ambiente enriquecido (AE) aumenta a atividade de células T e contribuí para imunopatogênese durante as infecções heterólogas do vírus da dengue (VDEN), nós hipotetizamos que animais que crescem em AE em comparação com animais que crescem em ambiente padrão (AP), ao serem infectados pelo vírus da dengue, desenvolveriam formas mais graves da doença. Além disso, como os animais velhos apresentam menor declínio funcional em células T de imunidade adaptativa, testamos a hipótese de que camundongos AE velhos ao serem infectados pelo vírus da dengue apresentariam maior taxa de mortalidade do que animais AP pareados por idade, e isso estaria associado à maior hiperplasia dos linfócitos T. Para testar essas hipóteses implantamos regime de inoculações múltiplas em animais adultos de 9 e 18 meses de idade. Dois regimes de inoculação foram testados: inoculações múltiplas de homogeneizado cerebral infectado por um único sorotipo (IUS) ou inoculações alternadas daquele homogeneizado e de anticorpo heterólogo (ICAH). Em ambos os casos foram feitas inoculações múltiplas intraperitoneais encontrando-se diferenças significativas no curso temporal da doença nos animais submetidos a um ou outro regime de inoculação. Comparado ao grupo ICAH para o qual detectou-se diferenças significativas entre os grupos AE e AP (Kaplan-Meyer log-rank test, p = 0,0025), não foram detectadas diferenças significativas entre os grupos experimentais AP e AE submetidos ao regime IUS (Kaplan-Meyer log-rank test, p = 0,089). As curvas de sobrevivência dos grupos AE e AP sob o regime ICAH foram estendidas após a injeção de glicocorticoides reduzindo-se os sintomas e o número de mortes e esse efeito foi maior no grupo AE do que no AP (Kaplan-Meyer log-rank test, p = 0,0162). No regime ICAH, o grupo AE mostrou sinais clínicos mais intensos do que o AP e isso incluiu dispneia, tremor, postura encurvada, imobilidade, paralisia pré-terminal, choque e eventual morte. Comparado ao grupo AP, o grupo AE independentemente da idade apresentou maior mortalidade e sinais clínicos mais intensos. Esses sinais clínicos mais intensos nos animais do ambiente enriquecido submetidos ao regime ICAH foram associados à maior hiperplasia de linfócitos T no baço e maior infiltração dessas células no fígado, pulmões e rins. Embora a hiperplasia linfocítica e a infiltração tenham se mostrado mais intensas nos animais velhos do que nos jovens, a imunomarcação para os antígenos virais nos mesmos órgãos foi maior nos jovens do que nos velhos. A presença do vírus nos diferentes órgãos alvo foi confirmada por PCR em tempo real. Tomados em conjunto os resultados sugerem que o ambiente enriquecido exacerba a resposta inflamatória subsequente à infecção por dengue acentuada por anticorpo heterólogo, e isso está associado à sintomas clínicos mais intensos, maior taxa de mortalidade e ao aumento da expansão de células T. Os ensaios comportamentais e histopatológicos do presente trabalho permitiram testar e validar novo modelo murino imunocompetente para estudos em dengue permitindo testar numerosas hipóteses oriundas de estudos epidemiológicos e in vitro.

Influências do envelhecimento e do ambiente sobre a progressão da encefalite experimental por arbovírus Piry em modelo murino: mudanças morfológicas microgliais e alterações comportamentais

O enriquecimento ambiental e os efeitos do envelhecimento sobre as alterações morfológicas das micróglias e no comportamento foram investigados em modelo murino de encefalite sub-letal por arbovírus. Para medir possíveis influências da idade e do ambiente sobre a progressão da encefalite, camundongos suíços albinos fêmeas de 2 meses de idade foram mantidos em Ambiente Padrão (AP) ou em Ambiente Enriquecido (AE), durante: 6 meses (Adulto - A) e 16 meses (Senil –S). Após os testes comportamentais, os camundongos A e S foram inoculados intranasalmente com igual volume de homogenado de cérebro de camundongo infectado pelo vírus Piry (Py) ou homogenado de cérebro de camundongo normal. Oito dias após a inoculação (8DPI), quando os primeiros testes comportamentais revelaram as alterações relacionadas à doença, os cérebros foram seccionados e inumomarcados seletivamente para IBA-1 e antígenos virais. Aos 20 ou 40DPI, os animais restantes foram testados comportamentalmente e processados para os mesmos marcadores e nenhum sinal neuropatológico foi detectado. Em camundongos adultos infectados o ambiente padrão (APPyA), a atividade de burrowing diminuiu e se recuperou rapidamente (8-10DPI), a atividade de campo aberto (20-40DPI), mas manteve-se inalterado em animais da mesma idade e de ambiente enriquecido (AEPyA). Em contraste animais senis tanto de ambiente enriquecido (AEPyS) quanto de ambiente empobrecido (APPyS) reduzem significativamente a atividade de burrowing em todas janelas. A encefalite causada pelo virus Piry, induziu perdas olfativas transitórias em animais APPyA e AEPyA, mas permanents em APPyS e AEPyS. A imunomarcação para os antígenos viral do Piry atingiram seu pico no parênquima do SNC aos 5 e 6DPI e desapareceu aos 8DPI. Todas as reconstruções tridimensionais das micróglias, foram realizadas aos 8DPI. Mudanças Microgliais foram significativamente mais graves em camundongos adultos do que em camundongos senis, mas os animais AE parecem recuperar a morfologia microglia homeostática mais cedo do que os animais de AP. Os efeitos benéficos do AE foram menores em camundongos envelhecidos.

An alternative B cell development program

Two major types of B cells, the antibody-producing cells of the immune system, are classically distinguished in the spleen: marginal zone (MZ) and follicular (FO). In addition, FO B cells are subdivided into FO I and FO II cells, based on the amount of surface IgM. MZ B cells, which surround the splenic follicles, rapidly produce IgM in response to blood-borne pathogens without T cell help, while T cell-dependent production of high affinity, isotype-switched antibodies is ascribed to FO I cells. The significance of FO II cells and the mechanism underlying B cell fate choices are unclear. We showed that FO II cells express more Sca1 than FO I cells and originate from a distinct B cell development program, marked by high expression of Sca1. MZ B cells can derive from the “canonical” Sca1lo pathways, as well as from the Sca1hi program, although the Sca1hi program shows a stronger MZ bias than the Sca1lo program, and extensive phenotypic plasticity exists between MZ and FO II, but not between MZ and FO I cells. The Sca1hi program is induced by hematopoietic stress and generates B cells with an Igλ-enriched repertoire. In aged mice, the canonical B cell development pathway is impaired, while the Sca1hi program is increased. Furthermore, we showed that a population of unknown function, defined as Lin-c-kit+Sca1+ (LSK-), contains early lymphoid precursors, with primarily B cell potential in vivo. Our data suggest that LSK- cells may represent a distinct precursor for the Sca1hi program in the bone marrow.

Expressions- und Funktionsanalysen von Neuroglobin und Cytoglobin

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden Untersuchungen zur Expression und Funktion der respiratorischen Proteine Neuroglobin (Ngb) und Cytoglobin (Cygb) in Vertebraten durchgeführt. Beide Globine wurden erst kürzlich entdeckt, und ihre Funktionen konnten trotz vorliegender Daten zur Struktur und biochemischen Eigenschaften dieser Proteine bisher nicht eindeutig geklärt werden. Im ersten Abschnitt der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die zelluläre und subzelluläre Lokalisation von Neuroglobin und Cytoglobin in murinen Gewebeschnitten untersucht. Die Expression von Ngb in neuronalen und endokrinen Geweben hängt offensichtlich mit den hohen metabolischen Aktivitäten dieser Organe zusammen. Insbesondere im Gehirn konnten regionale Unterschiede in der Ngb-Expression beobachtet werden. Dabei korrelierte eine besonders starke Neuroglobin-Expression mit Gehirnbereichen, die bekanntermaßen die höchsten Grundaktivitäten aufweisen. In Anbetracht dessen liegt die Funktion des Neuroglobins möglicherweise im basalen O2-Metabolismus dieser Gewebe, wobei Ngb als O2-Lieferant und kurzfristiger O2-Speicher den vergleichsweise hohen Sauerstoffbedarf vor Ort sicherstellen könnte. Weitere Funktionen in der Entgiftung von ROS bzw. RNS oder die kürzlich publizierte mögliche Rolle des Ngb bei der Verhinderung der Mitochondrien-vermittelten Apoptose durch eine Reduktion des freigesetzten Cytochrom c wären darüber hinaus denkbar. Die Cygb-Expression im Gehirn beschränkte sich auf relativ wenige Neurone in verschiedenen Gehirnbereichen und zeigte dort vorwiegend eine Co-Lokalisation mit der neuronalen NO-Synthase. Dieser Befund legt eine Funktion des Cytoglobins im NO-Metabolismus nahe. Quantitative RT-PCR-Experimente zur mRNA-Expression von Ngb und Cygb in alternden Säugern am Bsp. der Hamsterspezies Phodopus sungorus zeigten keine signifikanten Änderungen der mRNA-Mengen beider Globine in alten im Vergleich zu jungen Tieren. Dies widerspricht publizierten Daten, in denen bei der Maus anhand von Western Blot-Analysen eine Abnahme der Neuroglobin-Menge im Alter gezeigt wurde. Möglicherweise handelt es sich hierbei um speziesspezifische Differenzen. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführte vergleichende Sequenzanalyse der humanen und murinen NGB/Ngb-Genregion liefert zum einen Hinweise auf die mögliche Regulation der Ngb-Expression und zum anderen eine wichtige Grundlage für die funktionellen Analysen dieses Gens. Es konnte ein minimaler Promotorbereich definiert werden, der zusammen mit einigen konservierten regulatorischen Elementen als Basis für experimentelle Untersuchungen der Promotoraktivität in Abhängigkeit von äußeren Einflüssen dienen wird. Bioinformatische Analysen führten zur Identifizierung des sog. „neuron restrictive silencer element“ (NRSE) im Ngb-Promotor, welches vermutlich für die vorwiegend neuronale Expression des Proteins verantwortlich ist. Die kontrovers diskutierte O2-abhängige Regulation der Ngb-Expression konnte hingegen anhand der durchgeführten komparativen Sequenzanalysen nicht bestätigt werden. Es wurden keine zwischen Mensch und Maus konservierten Bindestellen für den Transkriptionsfaktor HIF-1 identifiziert, der die Expression zahlreicher hypoxieregulierter Gene, z.B. Epo und VEGF, vermittelt. Zusammen mit den in vivo-Daten spricht dies eher gegen eine Regulation der Ngb-Expression bei verminderter Verfügbarkeit von Sauerstoff. Die Komplexität der Funktionen von Ngb und Cygb im O2-Stoffwechsel der Vertebraten macht den Einsatz muriner Modellsysteme unerlässlich, die eine sukzessive Aufklärung der Funktionen beider Proteine erlauben. Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert auch dazu einen wichtigen Beitrag. Die hergestellten „gene-targeting“-Vektorkonstrukte liefern in Verbindung mit den etablierten Nachweisverfahren zur Genotypisierung von embryonalen Stammzellen die Grundlage zur erfolgreichen Generierung von Ngb-knock out sowie Ngb- und Cygb-überexprimierenden transgenen Tieren. Diese werden für die endgültige Entschlüsselung funktionell relevanter Fragestellungen von enormer Bedeutung sein.

Age, microbiota, and T cells shape diverse individual IgA repertoires in the intestine

Intestinal immunoglobulin A (IgA) ensures host defense and symbiosis with our commensal microbiota. Yet previous studies hint at a surprisingly low diversity of intestinal IgA, and it is unknown to what extent the diverse Ig arsenal generated by somatic recombination and diversification is actually used. In this study, we analyze more than one million mouse IgA sequences to describe the shaping of the intestinal IgA repertoire, its determinants, and stability over time. We show that expanded and infrequent clones combine to form highly diverse polyclonal IgA repertoires with very little overlap between individual mice. Selective homing allows expanded clones to evenly seed the small but not large intestine. Repertoire diversity increases during aging in a dual process. On the one hand, microbiota-, T cell-, and transcription factor RORγt-dependent but Peyer's patch-independent somatic mutations drive the diversification of expanded clones, and on the other hand, new clones are introduced into the repertoire of aged mice. An individual's IgA repertoire is stable and recalled after plasma cell depletion, which is indicative of functional memory. These data provide a conceptual framework to understand the dynamic changes in the IgA repertoires to match environmental and intrinsic stimuli.