Antiretroviral resistance mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infected patients enrolled in genotype testing at the Central Public Health Laboratory, São Paulo, Brazil: preliminary results

Antiretroviral resistance mutations (ARM) are one of the major obstacles for pharmacological human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) suppression. Plasma HIV-1 RNA from 306 patients on antiretroviral therapy with virological failure was analyzed, most of them (60%) exposed to three or more regimens, and 28% of them have started therapy before 1997. The most common regimens in use at the time of genotype testing were AZT/3TC/nelfinavir, 3TC/D4T/nelfinavir and AZT/3TC/efavirenz. The majority of ARM occurred at protease (PR) gene at residue L90 (41%) and V82 (25%); at reverse transcriptase (RT) gene, mutations at residue M184 (V/I) were observed in 64%. One or more thymidine analogue mutations were detected in 73%. The number of ARM at PR gene increased from a mean of four mutations per patient who showed virological failure at the first ARV regimens to six mutations per patient exposed to six or more regimens; similar trend in RT was also observed. No differences in ARM at principal codon to the three drug classes for HIV-1 clades B or F were observed, but some polymorphisms in secondary codons showed significant differences. Strategies to improve the cost effectiveness of drug therapy and to optimize the sequencing and the rescue therapy are the major health priorities.

Incidence of HIV-1 drug resistance among antiretroviral treatment-naive individuals starting modern therapy combinations.

BACKGROUND: Estimates of drug resistance incidence to modern first-line combination antiretroviral therapies against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 are complicated by limited availability of genotypic drug resistance tests (GRTs) and uncertain timing of resistance emergence. METHODS: Five first-line combinations were studied (all paired with lamivudine or emtricitabine): efavirenz (EFV) plus zidovudine (AZT) (n = 524); EFV plus tenofovir (TDF) (n = 615); lopinavir (LPV) plus AZT (n = 573); LPV plus TDF (n = 301); and ritonavir-boosted atazanavir (ATZ/r) plus TDF (n = 250). Virological treatment outcomes were classified into 3 risk strata for emergence of resistance, based on whether undetectable HIV RNA levels were maintained during therapy and, if not, whether viral loads were >500 copies/mL during treatment. Probabilities for presence of resistance mutations were estimated from GRTs (n = 2876) according to risk stratum and therapy received at time of testing. On the basis of these data, events of resistance emergence were imputed for each individual and were assessed using survival analysis. Imputation was repeated 100 times, and results were summarized by median values (2.5th-97.5th percentile range). RESULTS: Six years after treatment initiation, EFV plus AZT showed the highest cumulative resistance incidence (16%) of all regimens (<11%). Confounder-adjusted Cox regression confirmed that first-line EFV plus AZT (reference) was associated with a higher median hazard for resistance emergence, compared with other treatments: EFV plus TDF (hazard ratio [HR], 0.57; range, 0.42-0.76), LPV plus AZT (HR, 0.63; range, 0.45-0.89), LPV plus TDF (HR, 0.55; range, 0.33-0.83), ATZ/r plus TDF (HR, 0.43; range, 0.17-0.83). Two-thirds of resistance events were associated with detectable HIV RNA level ≤500 copies/mL during treatment, and only one-third with virological failure (HIV RNA level, >500 copies/mL). CONCLUSIONS: The inclusion of TDF instead of AZT and ATZ/r was correlated with lower rates of resistance emergence, most likely because of improved tolerability and pharmacokinetics resulting from a once-daily dosage.

Reverse transcriptase-dependent and -independent phases of infection with mouse mammary tumor virus: implications for superantigen function.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) encodes a superantigen (SAg) that promotes stable infection and virus transmission. Upon subcutaneous MMTV injection, infected B cells present SAg to SAg-reactive T cells leading to a strong local immune response in the draining lymph node (LN) that peaks after 6 d. We have used the reverse transcriptase inhibitor 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT) to dissect in more detail the mechanism of SAg-dependent enhancement of MMTV infection in this system. Our data show that no detectable B or T cell response to SAg occurs in AZT pretreated mice. However, if AZT treatment is delayed 1-2 d after MMTV injection, a normal SAg-dependent local immune response is observed on day 6. Quantitation of viral DNA in draining LN of these infected mice indicates that a 4,000-fold increase in the absolute numbers of infected cells occurs between days 2 and 6 despite the presence of AZT. Furthermore MMTV DNA was found preferentially in surface IgG+ B cells of infected mice and was not detectable in SAg-reactive T cells. Collectively our data suggest that MMTV infection occurs preferentially in B cells without SAg involvement and is completed 1-2 d after virus challenge. Subsequent amplification of MMTV infection between days 2 and 6 requires SAg expression and occurs in the absence of any further requirement for reverse transcription. We therefore conclude that clonal expansion of infected B cells via cognate interaction with SAg-reactive T cells is the predominant mechanism for increasing the level of MMTV infection. Since infected B cells display a memory (surface IgG+) phenotype, both clonal expansion and possibly longevity of the virus carrier cells may contribute to stable MMTV infection.

Nucleophile-Catalyzed Additions to Activated Triple Bonds. Protection of Lactams, Imides, and Nucleosides with MocVinyl and Related Groups

Additions of lactams, imides, (S)-4-benzyl-1,3-oxazolidin-2-one, 2-pyridone, pyrimidine-2,4-diones (AZT derivatives), or inosines to the electron-deficient triple bonds of methyl propynoate, tert-butyl propynoate, 3-butyn-2-one, N-propynoylmorpholine, or N-methoxy-N-methylpropynamide in the presence of many potential catalysts were examined. DABCO and, second, DMAP appeared to be the best (highest reaction rates and E/Z ratios), while RuCl3, RuClCp*(PPh3)2, AuCl, AuCl(PPh3), CuI, and Cu2(OTf)2 were incapable of catalyzing such additions. The groups incorporated (for example, the 2-(methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl group that we name MocVinyl) serve as protecting groups for the above-mentioned heterocyclic CONH or CONHCO moieties. Deprotections were accomplished via exchange with good nucleophiles: the 1-dodecanethiolate anion turned out to be the most general and efficient reagent, but in some particular cases other nucleophiles also worked (e.g., MocVinyl-inosines can be cleaved with succinimide anion). Some structural and mechanistic details have been accounted for with the help of DFT and MP2 calculations.

Nucleophile-Catalyzed Additions to Activated Triple Bonds. Protection of Lactams, Imides, and Nucleosides with MocVinyl and Related Groups

Additions of lactams, imides, (S)-4-benzyl-1,3-oxazolidin-2-one, 2-pyridone, pyrimidine-2,4-diones (AZT derivatives), or inosines to the electron-deficient triple bonds of methyl propynoate, tert-butyl propynoate, 3-butyn-2-one, N-propynoylmorpholine, or N-methoxy-N-methylpropynamide in the presence of many potential catalysts were examined. DABCO and, second, DMAP appeared to be the best (highest reaction rates and E/Z ratios), while RuCl3, RuClCp*(PPh3)2, AuCl, AuCl(PPh3), CuI, and Cu2(OTf)2 were incapable of catalyzing such additions. The groups incorporated (for example, the 2-(methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl group that we name MocVinyl) serve as protecting groups for the above-mentioned heterocyclic CONH or CONHCO moieties. Deprotections were accomplished via exchange with good nucleophiles: the 1-dodecanethiolate anion turned out to be the most general and efficient reagent, but in some particular cases other nucleophiles also worked (e.g., MocVinyl-inosines can be cleaved with succinimide anion). Some structural and mechanistic details have been accounted for with the help of DFT and MP2 calculations.

Drug-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and cardiotoxicity.

Mitochondria has an essential role in myocardial tissue homeostasis; thus deterioration in mitochondrial function eventually leads to cardiomyocyte and endothelial cell death and consequent cardiovascular dysfunction. Several chemical compounds and drugs have been known to directly or indirectly modulate cardiac mitochondrial function, which can account both for the toxicological and pharmacological properties of these substances. In many cases, toxicity problems appear only in the presence of additional cardiovascular disease conditions or develop months/years following the exposure, making the diagnosis difficult. Cardiotoxic agents affecting mitochondria include several widely used anticancer drugs [anthracyclines (Doxorubicin/Adriamycin), cisplatin, trastuzumab (Herceptin), arsenic trioxide (Trisenox), mitoxantrone (Novantrone), imatinib (Gleevec), bevacizumab (Avastin), sunitinib (Sutent), and sorafenib (Nevaxar)], antiviral compound azidothymidine (AZT, Zidovudine) and several oral antidiabetics [e.g., rosiglitazone (Avandia)]. Illicit drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, and synthetic cannabinoids (spice, K2) may also induce mitochondria-related cardiotoxicity. Mitochondrial toxicity develops due to various mechanisms involving interference with the mitochondrial respiratory chain (e.g., uncoupling) or inhibition of the important mitochondrial enzymes (oxidative phosphorylation, Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle, mitochondrial DNA replication, ADP/ATP translocator). The final phase of mitochondrial dysfunction induces loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and an increase in mitochondrial oxidative/nitrative stress, eventually culminating into cell death. This review aims to discuss the mechanisms of mitochondrion-mediated cardiotoxicity of commonly used drugs and some potential cardioprotective strategies to prevent these toxicities.

Stability-indicating methods for quantitative determination of zidovudine and stavudine in capsules

Zidovudine (AZT) and stavudine (D4T) are nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors extensively used in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients. In order to evaluate the quality of these drugs, two stability indicating HPLC methods were developed. The validated methods were applied in quantitative determination of AZT, D4T and their induced degradation products in capsule preparations. The stability studies were conducted at controlled temperature and relative humidity conditions based on the International Conference on Harmonization stability studies protocol for Zone IV areas. Easy sample preparation and low-cost make these methods especially useful for quality control and stability studies of AZT and D4T in drug products.

Desenvolvimento e validação de método analítico para determinação simultânea de lamivudina, zidovudina e nevirapina em comprimidos dose-fixa combinada por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência

An analytical method has been developed and validated for the quantitation of lamivudine, zidovudine and nevirapine in the fixed-dose combination film-coated tablet by high performance liquid chromatography, in accordance with RE No. 899/2003, National Sanitary Surveillance Agency. It was based on an isocratic elution system with a potassium phosphate buffer pH 3.0: acetonitrile (60:40 v/v) mobile phase, C18, 250 x 46 mm column, 10µm particle size, λ 270 nm. The statistically evaluated results have shown that the method is specific, precise, accurate, and robust, ensuring the analytical safety of 3TC, AZT and NVP determination, which emerges as a new therapeutic alternative for antiretroviral treatment.

Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of lamivudine and zidovudine in fixed dose combinations using multivariate calibration

The simultaneous determination of two or more active components in pharmaceutical preparations, without previous chemical separation, is a common analytical problem. Published works describe the determination of AZT and 3TC separately, as raw material or in different pharmaceutical preparations. In this work, a method using UV spectroscopy and multivariate calibration is described for the simultaneous measurement of 3TC and AZT in fixed dose combinations. The methodology was validated and applied to determine the AZT+3TC contents in tablets from five different manufacturers, as well as their dissolution profile. The results obtained employing the proposed methodology was similar to methods using first derivative technique and HPLC.

Histoplasmose como causa de perfuração intestinal em paciente com síndrome da imunodeficiência adquirida

Thirty-four years old patient, female, husband died of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Síndrome). She's confined to Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, with a positive tesT for AIDS, fever, 10 kg/month of weight loss, diarrhea with gummy faeces, productive cough, yellowish sputum. The therapy was initiated, symptomatic, associated to Epivir, Saquinavir and AZT. The searching exams for Alcohol Ácid Resistant Bacili and fungi in the sputum were negative. At the hemogram was shown a pancytopenia, the esophagogastroduodenunscopy showed light esophago moniliasis. During commitment presented a perforating acute abdomen chart, the abdominal radiography showed hidroair levels, pneumoperitoneum, enlarced bowels with swollen wall. She was undertaken a surgery with diagnosis hypothesis of cytomegalovirus perforation, which accordin to literature is the most frequent cause of intestinal perforation in patients with AIDS.

Efeito das drogas anti-retrovirais sobre as taxas de fertilidade de ratas Wistar

OBJETIVO: avaliar os efeitos de drogas anti-retrovirais isoladas e em associação sobre as taxas de fertilidade em ratas prenhes expostas a estes fármacos, bem como o efeito perinatal nas crias. MÉTODOS: foram utilizadas ratas fêmeas prenhes adultas da raça Wistar, pesando inicialmente entre 200 e 230 g. Foram testadas a azidotimidina (AZT), lamivudina (3TC) e nelfinavir (NFV), cujas dosagens foram padronizadas em 10 vezes a dose normalmente utilizada em gestantes, proporcionalmente ao peso dos animais. No total foram avaliados sete grupos, incluindo o controle. O início da experimentação foi o dia zero da prenhez e as cesarianas foram realizadas com 21 dias de prenhez. Para o cálculo das taxas de fertilidade, avaliaram-se o número de fetos vivos e mortos, sítios de implantação e número de corpos lúteos. Utilizaram-se o teste t de Student e Mann-Whitney para a análise estatística. RESULTADOS: não houve alterações significativas nas taxas de perdas pré-implantação e da eficiência de implantação de ratas tratadas com anti-retrovirais isolados e em associação. No entanto, houve aumento significativo nas taxas de perdas pós-implantação (grupo controle: 7,6%; grupos medicamentos: de 20,2 a 26,7%), redução significativa nas taxas de viabilidade fetal (grupo controle: 92,4%; grupos medicamentos: de 73,3 a 79,8%) e redução significativa no número de fetos por ninhada (grupo controle: 14,7, grupos medicamentos: de 11,1 a 12,7). Observou-se também que houve redução do peso materno e dos fetos nos grupos tratados com 3TC, AZT + 3TC e AZT + 3TC + NFV. CONCLUSÃO: com a utilização de doses elevadas de medicamentos anti-retrovirais na presente casuística, efeitos importantes sobre a fertilidade foram encontrados, o que sinaliza para a necessidade de se pesquisarem outros fármacos anti-retrovirais com menor potencial histotóxico e que possam, com segurança, ser utilizados por gestantes portadoras da infecção pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana.

Intolerância glicêmica e o prognóstico perinatal em gestantes utilizando anti-retrovirais

OBJETIVOS: estudar o efeito das drogas anti-retrovirais sobre o metabolismo glicêmico em gestantes portadoras do HIV-1 e a ação dessas medicações sobre o prognóstico perinatal. MÉTODOS: estudo prospectivo realizado em 57 gestantes divididas em três grupos: grupo AZT, utilizando zidovudina (n=20); grupo TT, utilizando zidovudina+lamivudina+nelfinavir (n=25), e grupo controle, gestantes normais (n=12). Obteve-se a área sob a curva (ASC) das glicemias após teste oral de tolerância à glicose com 75 g de glicose em quatro oportunidades durante a gravidez (1º=14-20 semanas, 2º=21-26 semanas, 3º=27-32 semanas e 4º=33-38 semanas). O prognóstico perinatal levou em consideração as taxas de prematuridade, restrição de crescimento intra-útero (RCIU), baixo peso ao nascer, mortalidade perinatal e transmissão vertical do HIV-1. Os dados foram analisados utilizando-se os testes não paramétricos do c², de Friedman e de Kruskal-Wallis. RESULTADOS: os valores da mediana da ASC foi de 11.685 mg/dL-2h para o grupo controle, 13.477 mg/dL-2h para o grupo AZT e 13.650 mg/dL-2h para o grupo TT (p=0,049). Não se observou efeito deletério dos anti-retrovirais sobre as taxas de prematuridade, baixo peso ao nascer, RCIU e índices de Apgar. Não houve nenhum caso de transmissão vertical do HIV-1. CONCLUSÕES: verificou-se o desenvolvimento de intolerância glicêmica em gestantes que utilizaram tratamento tríplice, não sendo observado naquelas que utilizaram apenas AZT. Não houve efeitos deletérios dos anti-retrovirais sobre o prognóstico perinatal.

O uso de anti-retrovirais em gestantes modifica o perfil lipídico?

OBJETIVO: avaliar o efeito das medicações anti-retrovirais sobre o metabolismo lipídico em gestantes portadoras do HIV. MÉTODOS: estudo prospectivo realizado em 57 gestantes que foram divididas em três grupos: grupo AZT, com 20 pacientes portadoras do HIV em uso de AZT; grupo TT, com 25 pacientes portadoras do HIV em uso de esquemas contendo três anti-retrovirais (AZT + 3TC + NFV) e grupo controle, com 12 pacientes. Os dados demográficos e antropométricos foram homogêneos entre os grupos estudados. Foram excluídas as pacientes com antecedentes pessoais ou familiares de hiperlipidemia. Amostras sanguíneas foram obtidas para avaliação dos lipídeos (colesterol total, frações LDL e HDL-colesterol e triglicerídeos) em quatro oportunidades durante a gravidez (1º = 14-20 semanas; 2º = 21-26 semanas; 3º = 27-32 semanas e 4º = 33-38 semanas). Os dados foram analisados utilizando-se os testes não paramétricos do chi², teste de Friedman e teste de Kruskal-Wallis. RESULTADOS: o uso de anti-retrovirais durante a gestação não induziu diferenças nas taxas do colesterol total e HDL, no entanto, o uso destes agentes esteve associado a elevação de 76,5 mg/dL e 84 mg/dL para 96 mg/dL e 105 mg/dL na concentração da fração LDL-colesterol para os grupos AZT e TT, respectivamente (p<0,01). Observou-se associação positiva significante entre os triglicerídeos e a carga viral nas gestantes do grupo AZT (r = 0,53; p = 0,015). CONCLUSÃO: a utilização dos anti-retrovirais durante a gestação eleva significativamente a concentração da lipoproteína LDL. Persistem as dúvidas se a gestação potencializa a longo prazo os efeitos dos anti-retrovirais sobre o metabolismo lipídico.

Efeito diabetogênico das drogas anti-retrovirais em ratas Wistar prenhes

OBJETIVO: estudar a ação diabetogênica de drogas anti-retrovirais em ratas prenhes e o prognóstico perinatal das crias. MÉTODOS: estudo com ratas fêmeas prenhes adultas da raça Wistar, pesando entre 200-230 g. Foram testadas a azidotimidina (AZT), lamivudina (3TC) e nelfinavir (NFV), cujas dosagens foram padronizadas em 10 vezes a dose utilizada em gestantes, proporcionalmente ao peso dos animais. Foram avaliados sete grupos, incluindo o controle, contendo 10 ratas por grupo. O início do experimento foi o dia zero da prenhez e as cesarianas realizadas no 21º dia, após decapitação, sendo os fetos contados e pesados. Procedeu-se a dosagens de glicemia, insulina, glucagon e lactato no 21º dia. Avaliou-se também o peso do tecido adiposo retroperitoneal. Os dados foram analisados utilizando-se o teste t de Student para a análise estatística. RESULTADOS: os grupos tratados com 3TC, AZT + 3TC e AZT + 3TC + NFV demonstraram alterações com a redução das médias de ganho de peso materno diário, do peso da gordura retroperitoneal e peso das crias (grupo controle: 6,2 g; grupos contendo 3TC: 4,1 a 5,6 g), bem como dos valores de lactato (grupo controle: 5,8 mmol/mL; grupos contendo 3TC: 3,2 a 3,7 mmol/mL), quando comparados ao controle. Todos os grupos tratados com drogas anti-retrovirais apresentaram redução significativa do número de fetos por ninhada (grupo controle: 14,7; grupos medicamentos: 11,1 a 12,7) e dos valores séricos de insulinemia (grupo controle: 6,2 µUI/mL; grupos medicamentos: 2,1 a 2,7 µUI/mL) e elevação da glucagonemia (grupo controle: 88,2 pg/mL; grupos medicamentos: 99,7 a 120,7 pg/mL). Não houve diferenças estatisticamente significantes entre o grupo controle e tratados nos valores de glicemia. CONCLUSÕES: o uso de anti-retrovirais em ratas prenhes causa interferência no metabolismo glicídico dos animais durante o período de prenhez, provocando significativa redução do número das crias. Observou-se que o uso do 3TC resultou em menor ganho de peso materno e das crias, redução de insulina e lactato e elevação do glucagon.

Controle de polidrâmnio recorrente em gestante portadora do HIV-1: relato de caso

A redução da transmissão vertical (TV) do vírus da imunodeficiência humana tipo 1 (HIV-1) utilizando a profilaxia com a zidovudina (AZT) representa significativo avanço na assistência pré-natal e obstétrica destas pacientes. Condutas obstétricas invasivas são contra-indicadas em gestantes portadoras do HIV-1, em face do risco de aumento da taxa de TV deste vírus. Os autores relatam um caso de polidrâmnio recorrente em gestante portadora do HIV-1, que exigiu drenagem por amniocentese. Foram realizadas quatro punções ao longo da gestação, na 23ª, 26ª, 27ª e 29ª semanas, todas guiadas por ultra-sonografia, drenando, respectivamente, 1.800, 1.450, 1.700 e 1.960 mL de líquido amniótico claro em cada punção. Com 30 semanas e 5 dias de gestação a paciente apresentou trabalho de parto pré-termo, evoluindo para parto vaginal de recém-nato (RN) pesando 1.690 g e medindo 43 cm. O RN evoluiu com diagnóstico de nefropatia perdedora de sódio, tendo três aferições de reação em cadeia de polimerase para HIV-1 negativas. Os autores ilustram uma opção no manejo de situações que envolvam gestantes portadoras do HIV-1 que necessitem de procedimentos obstétricos invasivos, utilizando AZT endovenoso (2 mg/kg) previamente ao procedimento, medida que apresentou excelente resultado no caso descrito, evitando a infecção perinatal pelo HIV-1.