Defects in tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes Fumarate hydratase and Succinate dehydrogenase in cancer

Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer (HLRCC) is a recently characterized cancer syndrome which predisposes to cutaneous and uterine leiomyomas as well as renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Uterine leiomyosarcoma (ULMS) has also been observed in certain Finnish HLRCC families. The predisposing gene for this syndrome, fumarate hydratase (FH), was identified in 2002. The well-known function of FH is in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCAC) in the energy metabolism of cells. As FH is a novel cancer gene, the role of FH mutations in tumours is in general unknown. Similarly, the mechanisms through which defective FH is associated with tumourigenesis are unclear. The loss of a wild type allele has been observed in virtually all HLRCC patients tumours and the FH enzyme activities are either totally lost or remarkably reduced in the tissues of mutation carrier patients. Therefore, FH is assumed to function as a tumour suppressor. Mutations in genes encoding subunits of other TCAC enzyme SDH have also been reported recently in tumours: mutations in SDHB, SDHC, and SDHD genes predispose to paraganglioma and pheochromocytoma. In the present study, mutations in the SDHB gene were observed to predispose to RCC. This was the first time that mutations in SDHB have been detected in extra-paraganglial tumours. Two different SDHB mutations were observed in two unrelated families. In the first family, the index patient was diagnosed with RCC at the age of 24 years. Additionally, his mother with a paraganglioma (PGL) of the heart and his maternal uncle with lung cancer were both carriers of the mutation. The RCC of the index patient and the PGL of his mother showed LOH. In the other family, an SDHB mutation was detected in two siblings who were both diagnosed with RCC at the ages of 24 and 26 years. Both of the siblings also suffered PGL. All these tumours showed LOH. Therefore, we concluded that mutations in SDHB predispose also for RCC in certain families. Several tumour types were analysed for FH mutations to define the role of FH mutations in these tumour types. In addition, patients with a putative cancer phenotype were analysed to identify new HLRCC families. Three FH variants were detected, of which two were novel. One of the variants was observed in a patient diagnosed with ULMS at the age of 41 years. However, LOH was not detected in the tumour tissue. The FH enzyme activity of the mutated protein was clearly reduced, being 43% of the activity of the normal protein. Together with the results from an earlier study we calculated that the prevalence of FH mutations in Finnish non-syndromic ULMS is around 2.4%. Therefore, FH mutations seem to have a minor role in the pathogenesis on non-syndromic ULMS. Two other germline variants were detected in a novel tumour type, ovarian mucinous cystadenoma. However, tumour tissues of the patients were not available for LOH studies and therefore LOH status remained unclear. Therefore, it is possible that FH mutations predispose also for ovarian tumours but further studies are needed to verify this result. A novel variant form of the FH gene (FHv) was identified and characterized in more detail. FHv contains an alternative first exon (1b), which appeared to function as 5 UTR sequence. The translation of FHv is initiated in vitro from exons two and three. The localization of FHv is both cytosolic and nuclear, in contrast to the localization of FH in mitochondria. FHv is expressed at low levels in all human tissues. Interestingly, the expression was induced after heat shock treatment and in chronic hypoxia. Therefore, FHv might have a role e.g. in the adaptation to unfavourable growth conditions. However, this remains to be elucidated.

Lost in Translation : Translation Mechanisms in Production of Cocksfoot Mottle Virus Proteins

The present study focuses on the translational strategies of Cocksfoot mottle virus (CfMV, genus Sobemovirus), which infects monocotyledonous plants. CfMV RNA lacks the 5'cap and the 3'poly(A) tail that ensure efficient translation of cellular messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Instead, CfMV RNA is covalently linked to a viral protein VPg (viral protein, genome-linked). This indicates that the viral untranslated regions (UTRs) must functionally compensate for the lack of the cap and poly(A) tail. We examined the efficacy of translation initiation in CfMV by comparing it to well-studied viral translational enhancers. Although insertion of the CfMV 5'UTR (CfMVe) into plant expression vectors improved gene expression in barley more than the other translational enhancers examined, studies at the RNA level showed that CfMVe alone or in combination with the CfMV 3'UTR did not provide the RNAs translational advantage. Mutation analysis revealed that translation initiation from CfMVe involved scanning. Interestingly, CfMVe also promoted translation initiation from an intercistronic position of dicistronic mRNAs in vitro. Furthermore, internal initiation occurred with similar efficacy in translation lysates that had reduced concentrations of eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4E, suggesting that initiation was independent of the eIF4E. In contrast, reduced translation in the eIF4G-depleted lysates indicated that translation from internally positioned CfMVe was eIF4G-dependent. After successful translation initiation, leaky scanning brings the ribosomes to the second open reading frame (ORF). The CfMV polyprotein is produced from this and the following overlapping ORF via programmed -1 ribosomal frameshift (-1 PRF). Two signals in the mRNA at the beginning of the overlap program approximately every fifth ribosome to slip one nucleotide backwards and continue translation in the new -1 frame. This leads to the production of C-terminally extended polyprotein, which encodes the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The -1 PRF event in CfMV was very efficient, even though it was programmed by a simple stem-loop structure instead of a pseudoknot, which is usually required for high -1 PRF frequencies. Interestingly, regions surrounding the -1 PRF signals improved the -1 PRF frequencies. Viral protein P27 inhibited the -1 PRF event in vivo, putatively by binding to the -1 PRF site. This suggested that P27 could regulate the occurrence of -1 PRF. Initiation of viral replication requires that viral proteins are released from the polyprotein. This is catalyzed by viral serine protease, which is also encoded from the polyprotein. N-terminal amino acid sequencing of CfMV VPg revealed that the junction of the protease and VPg was cleaved between glutamate (E) and asparagine (N) residues. This suggested that the processing sites used in CfMV differ from the glutamate and serine (S) or threonine (T) sites utilized in other sobemoviruses. However, further analysis revealed that the E/S and E/T sites may be used to cleave out some of the CfMV proteins.

A Haplotype at the UCP1 Gene Locus Contributes to Genetic Risk for Type 2 Diabetes in Asian Indians (CURES-72)

Background: The gene encoding for uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) is considered to be a candidate gene for type 2 diabetes because of its role in thermogenesis and energy expenditure. The objective of the study was to examine whether genetic variations in the UCP1 gene are associated with type 2 diabetes and its related traits in Asian Indians. Methods: The study subjects, 810 type 2 diabetic subjects and 990 normal glucose tolerant (NGT) subjects, were chosen from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiological Study (CURES), an ongoing population-based study in southern India. The polymorphisms were genotyped using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. Linkage disequilibrium (LD) was estimated from the estimates of haplotypic frequencies. Results: The three polymorphisms, namely -3826A -> G, an A -> C transition in the 5'-untranslated region (UTR) and Met229Leu, were not associated with type 2 diabetes. However, the frequency of the A-C-Met (-3826A -> G-5'UTR A -> C-Met229Leu) haplotype was significantly higher among the type 2 diabetic subjects (2.67%) compared with the NGT subjects (1.45%, P < 0.01). The odds ratio for type 2 diabetes for the individuals carrying the haplotype A-C-Met was 1.82 (95% confidence interval, 1.29-2.78, P = 0.009). Conclusions: The haplotype, A-C-Met, in the UCP1 gene is significantly associated with the increased genetic risk for developing type 2 diabetes in Asian Indians.

The cDNA sequence of cytochrome b5 associated with cytokinin-induced haustoria formation in Cuscuta reflexa

A cDNA clone isolated by differentially screening a cytokinin-induced haustorial cDNA library of Cuscuta reflexa was sequenced and identified as the gene coding for cytochrome b(5), based on the similarity of the deduced amino-acid sequence with that of the cauliflower (60% identity) and tobacco (78% identity) proteins. The 5'-UTR is unusually long (720 bp) and contains 14 potential start codons (ATG) and 10 short ORFs.

Identification of a core promoter and a novel isoform of the human TSCI gene transcript and structural comparison with mouse homolog

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disorder with loci on chromosome 9q34.12 (TSC1) and chromosome 16p13.3 (TSC2). Genes for both loci have been isolated and characterized. The promoters of both genes have not been characterized so far and little is known about the regulation of these genes. This study reports the characterization of the human TSC1 promoter region for the first time. We have identified a novel alternative isoform in the 5' untranslated region (UTR) of the TSC1 gene transcript involving exon 1. Alternative isoforms in the 5' UTR of the mouse Tsc1 gene transcript involving exon I and exon 2 have also been identified. We have identified three upstream open reading frames (uORFs) in the 5' UTR of the TSC1/Tsc1 gene. A comparative study of the 5' UTR of TSC1/Tsc1 gene has revealed that there is a high degree of similarity not only in the sequence but also in the splicing pattern of both human and mouse TSC1 genes. We have used PCR methodology to isolate approximately 1.6 kb genomic DNA 5' to the TSC1 cDNA. This sequence has directed a high level of expression of luciferase activity in both HeLa and HepG2 cells. Successive 5' and 3' deletion analysis has suggested that a -587 bp region, from position +77 to -510 from the transcription start site (TSS), contains the promoter activity. Interestingly, this region contains no consensus TATA box or CAAT box. However, a 521-bp fragment surrounding the TSS exhibits the characteristics of a CpG island which overlaps with the promoter region. The identification of the TSC1 promoter region will help in designing a suitable strategy to identify mutations in this region in patients who do not show any mutations in the coding regions. It will also help to study the regulation of the TSC1 gene and its role in tumorigenesis. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Cryptic AUG is important for 48S ribosomal assembly during internal initiation of translation of coxsackievirus B3 RNA

We have investigated the possible role of a conserved cis-acting element, the cryptic AUG, present in the 5' UTR of coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) RNA. CVB3 5' UTR contains multiple AUG codons upstream of the initiator AUG, which are not used for the initiation of translation. The 48S ribosomal assembly takes place upstream of the cryptic AUG. We show here that mutation in the cryptic AUG results in reduced efficiency of translation mediated by the CVB3 IRES; mutation also reduces the interaction of mutant IRES with a well characterized IRES trans-acting factor, the human La protein. Furthermore, partial silencing of the La gene showed a decrease in IRES activity in the case of both the wild-type and mutant. We have demonstrated here that the interaction of the 48S ribosomal complex with mutant RNA was weaker compared with wild-type RNA by ribosome assembly analysis. We have also investigated by chemical and enzymic modifications the possible alteration in secondary structure in the mutant RNA. Results suggest that the secondary structure of mutant RNA was only marginally altered. Additionally, we have demonstrated by generating compensatory and non-specific mutations the specific function of the cryptic AUG in internal initiation. Results suggest that the effect of the cryptic AUG is specific and translation could not be rescued. However, a possibility of tertiary interaction of the cryptic AUG with other cis-acting elements cannot be ruled out. Taken together, it appears that the integrity of the cryptic AUG is important for efficient translation initiation by the CVB3 IRES RNA.

Ribosome-RNA interaction: a potential target for developing antiviral against hepatitis C virus

Hepatitis C virus (HCV), a member of Flaviviridae, encoding a positive-sense single-stranded RNA translates by cap-independent mechanism using the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) present in the 5' UTR of the virus. The IRES has complex stem loop structures and is capable of recruiting the 40S ribosomal subunit in a factor-independent fashion. As the IRES sequence is highly conserved throughout the HCV genotypes and the translation is the first obligatory step of the HCV life cycle, the IRE'S-mediated translation, or more specifically, the ribosome HCV RNA interaction is an attractive target to design effective antivirals. This article will focus on the mechanism of the HCV IRES translation and the various ways in which the interaction of ribosome and IRES has been targeted.

The translation initiation factor DAP5 promotes IRES-driven translation of p53 mRNA

Translational regulation of the p53 mRNA can determine the ratio between p53 and its N-terminal truncated isoforms and therefore has a significant role in determining p53-regulated signaling pathways. Although its importance in cell fate decisions has been demonstrated repeatedly, little is known about the regulatory mechanisms that determine this ratio. Two internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) residing within the 5'UTR and the coding sequence of p53 mRNA drive the translation of full-length p53 and Delta 40p53 isoform, respectively. Here, we report that DAP5, a translation initiation factor shown to positively regulate the translation of various IRES containing mRNAs, promotes IRES-driven translation of p53 mRNA. Upon DAP5 depletion, p53 and Delta 40p53 protein levels were decreased, with a greater effect on the N-terminal truncated isoform. Functional analysis using bicistronic vectors driving the expression of a reporter gene from each of these two IRESs indicated that DAP5 preferentially promotes translation from the second IRES residing in the coding sequence. Furthermore, p53 mRNA expressed from a plasmid carrying this second IRES was selectively shifted to lighter polysomes upon DAP5 knockdown. Consequently, Delta 40p53 protein levels and the subsequent transcriptional activation of the 14-3-3 sigma gene, a known target of Delta 40p53, were strongly reduced. In addition, we show here that DAP5 interacts with p53 IRES elements in in vitro and in vivo binding studies, proving for the first time that DAP5 directly binds a target mRNA. Thus, through its ability to regulate IRES-dependent translation of the p53 mRNA, DAP5 may control the ratio between different p53 isoforms encoded by a single mRNA.

Trans-spliced Heat Shock Protein 90 Modulates Encystation in Giardia lamblia

Background: Hsp90 from Giardia lamblia is expressed by splicing of two independently transcribed RNA molecules, coded by genes named HspN and HspC located 777 kb apart. The reasons underlying such unique trans-splicing based generation of GlHsp90 remain unclear. Principle Finding: In this study using mass-spectrometry we identify the sequence of the unique, junctional peptide contributed by the 5' UTR of HspC ORF. This peptide is critical for the catalytic function of Hsp90 as it harbours an essential ``Arg'' in its sequence. We also show that full length GlHsp90 possesses all the functional hall marks of a canonical Hsp90 including its ability to bind and hydrolyze ATP. Using qRT-PCR as well as western blotting approach we find the reconstructed Hsp90 to be induced in response to heat shock. On the contrary we find GlHsp90 to be down regulated during transition from proliferative trophozoites to environmentally resistant cysts. This down regulation of GlHsp90 appears to be mechanistically linked to the encystation process as we find pharmacological inhibition of GlHsp90 function to specifically induce encystation. Significance: Our results implicate the trans-spliced GlHsp90 from Giardia lamblia to regulate an essential stage transition in the life cycle of this important human parasite.

DNA methylation analysis of phenotype specific stratified Indian population

Background: DNA methylation and its perturbations are an established attribute to a wide spectrum of phenotypic variations and disease conditions. Indian traditional system practices personalized medicine through indigenous concept of distinctly descriptive physiological, psychological and anatomical features known as prakriti. Here we attempted to establish DNA methylation differences in these three prakriti phenotypes. Methods: Following structured and objective measurement of 3416 subjects, whole blood DNA of 147 healthy male individuals belonging to defined prakriti (Vata, Pitta and Kapha) between the age group of 20-30years were subjected to methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) and microarray analysis. After data analysis, prakriti specific signatures were validated through bisulfite DNA sequencing. Results: Differentially methylated regions in CpG islands and shores were significantly enriched in promoters/UTRs and gene body regions. Phenotypes characterized by higher metabolism (Pitta prakriti) in individuals showed distinct promoter (34) and gene body methylation (204), followed by Vata prakriti which correlates to motion showed DNA methylation in 52 promoters and 139 CpG islands and finally individuals with structural attributes (Kapha prakriti) with 23 and 19 promoters and CpG islands respectively. Bisulfite DNA sequencing of prakriti specific multiple CpG sites in promoters and 5'-UTR such as; LHX1 (Vata prakriti), SOX11 (Pitta prakriti) and CDH22 (Kapha prakriti) were validated. Kapha prakriti specific CDH22 5'-UTR CpG methylation was also found to be associated with higher body mass index (BMI). Conclusion: Differential DNA methylation signatures in three distinct prakriti phenotypes demonstrate the epigenetic basis of Indian traditional human classification which may have relevance to personalized medicine.

Análise clínica e molecular em indivíduos com deficiência mental idiopática no Maranhão: diagnóstico diferencial da síndrome do X frágil

O retardo mental (RM) representa um problema de saúde pública mundial ainda negligenciado no Brasil e, em especial nas regiões mais pobres como o Nordeste. A síndrome do X frágil (SXF) é uma das formas mais estudadas de RM hereditário em seres humanos. Esta doença monogênica, de herança ligada ao X dominante, é decorrente de uma mutação no exon 1 do gene FMR1, localizado na região Xq27.3. A mutação no FMR1 se caracteriza pelo aumento de repetições de trinucleotídios CGG em tandem na região 5 UTR desse gene, sendo a expansão dessas trincas o principal evento mutacional responsável pela SXF. De maneira geral, os fenótipos cognitivos de indivíduos do sexo masculino com a síndrome incluem deficiência intelectual de moderada à grave. No presente trabalho, realizamos um estudo transversal da SXF em indivíduos portadores de retardo mental de causa desconhecida, engajados em Programas de Educação Especial e em instituições psiquiátricas de São Luís-MA, rastreando amplificações de sequências trinucleotídicas no gene FMR1. A amostra foi composta por 238 indivíduos do sexo masculino, não aparentados, na faixa etária de 4 a 60 anos (média = 21 9 anos). O DNA dos participantes foi obtido a partir de 5 mL de sangue coletados em tubos com anti-coagulante EDTA e a análise molecular da região gênica de interesse foi realizada através da reação em cadeia da polimerase, utilizando-se três primers. Dentre os indivíduos triados quanto à presença de mutações no gene FMR1, apenas um apresentou um resultado inconclusivo e 2 (0,84%) foram positivos para a SXF, sendo que um deles (3503) apresentou mais de 200 repetições CGG no locus FRAXA e o outro indivíduo (3660) apresentou uma deleção de ~197 pb envolvendo parte das repetições CGG e uma região proximal às repetições CGG. Ambos possuíam história familiar de RM ligado ao X. No indivíduo 3503 observamos as seguintes características clínicas: temperamento dócil, orelhas grandes, mandíbula proeminente e flacidez ligamentar. O indivíduo 3660 apresentava hiperatividade, contato pobre com os olhos, orelhas grandes, mandíbula proeminente, pectus excavatum, macroorquidismo e pouca comunicação. O esclarecimento sobre a doença oferecido às famílias de ambos contribuiu sobremaneira para o entendimento da condição, do prognóstico e dos riscos de recorrência. A prevalência da SXF em nossa amostra, 0,84%, embora relativamente baixa, encontra-se na faixa de incidência de casos diagnosticados em outras populações que, em sua maioria, relatam incidências variando de 0 a 3%. Em parte, atribuímos o percentual encontrado aos critérios de inclusão utilizados em nosso estudo. Concluímos que o protocolo de triagem molecular utilizado em nosso estudo se mostrou eficiente e adequado para a realidade do Maranhão, podendo constituir uma ferramenta auxiliar a ser aplicada na avaliação de rotina dos portadores de RM, com grandes benefícios para o Estado.

稻属A基因组的分子系统发育--兼论亚洲栽培稻的起源

稻属Oryza隶属禾本科Poaceae，包括20多个野生种和2个栽培种(亚洲栽培稻O. sativa L和非洲栽培稻O. glaberrima Steud) ，广泛分布于全球热带和亚热带。稻属物种可划分为10个基因组(又称染色体组)类型：A, B, C, BC, CD, E, F, G, HJ 和 HK。栽培稻所属的A基因组是稻属中物种数目最多、地理分布最广的基因组类型，由8个种组成。由于栽培稻属于A基因组，故A基因组物种是栽培稻遗传改良的巨大基因源。数十年来，国际上许多学者对A基因组类群开展了大量涉及形态、细胞、同工酶和分子标记方面的研究，但由于A基因组物种间遗传关系十分接近，形态上差异小且地理分布重叠，使得A基因组物种的系统发育、物种起源和生物地理学等方面存在诸多悬而未决的问题，是稻属中分类和鉴定困难较多的类群。本文利用核基因内含子序列，结合转座子插入分析，重建了A基因组的系统发育，估测了各类群的分化时间;与此同时，基于多克隆测序和基因谱系分析，探讨了O. rufipogon和O. nivara遗传关系以及亚洲栽培稻起源。主要研究结果如下： 1. A基因组的系统发育 在水稻全基因组数据库搜索的基础上，测定了4个单拷贝核基因（Adh1 及3个未注释基因）的内含子序列，构建了稻属A基因组8个种的系统发育关系。基于最大简约法和贝叶斯法的系统发育分析表明：1）澳大利亚的O. meridionalis为A基因组的基部类群;2）亚洲栽培稻两个亚种O. sativa ssp. japonica 和 O. sativa ssp. indica分别和不同的野生类群聚为独立的两个分支，支持japonica 和 indica为多次起源;3）O. rufipogon和O. nivara在系统发育树上完全混在一起，显示出二者间不存在遗传分化;4）非洲一年生野生种O. barthii是非洲栽培稻O. glaberrima的祖先，而非洲多年生野生种O. longistaminata与O. glaberrima/O. barthii.亲缘关系较远;5）分子钟方法估测A基因组类群约在2百万年前（2.0MYA）开始分化，亚洲栽培稻和非洲栽培稻，以及亚洲栽培稻的两个亚种则分别在0.7和 0.4 MYA左右开始分化。此外，通过核基因内含子序列与其它常用片段如ITS，matK等对比分析表明，进化速率相对较快的核基因内含子序列可以有效地用于近缘类群的系统发育研究。 2. Oryza rufipogon 和O. nivara群体遗传研究及亚洲栽培稻起源 对于亚洲野生类群O. rufipogon和O. nivara是合并为一个种还是处理为两个独立的种一直存在争议。在系统发育研究基础上，我们选取4个核基因内含子或5’-UTR区（Waxy, LHS，CatA和1个未注释基因），对采自整个分布区的群体样品进行了多克隆测序，结果表明：1）检测到O. rufipogon和O. nivara均有较高的核苷酸多态性，4个位点上π值和θw值平均分别为0.011和0.014;2）且二者在遗传上没有明显分化，两个类群在4个核基因位点上均检测到大量共享多态（shared polymorphism），未发现固有差异(fixed difference)，表明它们历史上可能属于一个大群体，支持将二者作为种内不同生态型或亚种处理;3）基因谱系树表明亚洲栽培稻的两个亚种indica和japonica分别和不同的O. rufipogon (包括O. nivara)群体聚在一起，进一步从基因谱系角度支持亚洲栽培稻多次起源假说。 3．转座子在群体遗传与系统发育研究中的应用 鉴于目前植物谱系地理学研究中缺乏具有足够信息量的分子标记用于检测种内遗传变异，我们选取3个核基因中的转座子，通过对取自O. rufipogon和O. nivara整个分布区的37份样品的克隆测序，探讨了进化速率快、信息含量丰富的转座子序列在群体遗传上的应用。结果表明：1）无论在物种水平还是群体水平，转座子能检测到比包括内含子在内的其它DNA区域高得多的遗传变异;2）在物种水平上，异交多年生的O. rufipogon和自交一年生的O. nivara多样性均较高，且2个种间相差很小，二者在3个位点上平均核苷酸多样性π值均为0.013，差别主要表现在O. rufipogon杂合位点比例（46.1%）明显高于O. nivara（9.1%），说明交配系统不同并不一定和物种多样性水平相关;3）是否发生转座子序列插入是有价值的系统发育信息，发生在不同染色体上3个基因中的转座子插入进一步证实A基因组基部类群是O. meridionalis;通过叶绿体中3个转座子的插入现象推断了稻族一些四倍体物种，如稻属BC基因组的一些类群的母本来源。

水母雪莲类黄酮次生代谢分子调控研究—cDNA 文库构建、关键酶及Myb 转录因子基因的克隆及其功能的初步鉴定

水母雪莲（Saussurea medusa Maxim）为名贵珍稀中药材，其主要药用成分为类黄酮，尤其是3-脱氧类黄酮。目前关于雪莲的研究主要集中在采用细胞培养生产类黄酮等方面，但对于雪莲类黄酮生物合成的分子机制了解甚少，极大限制了这一珍贵资源的利用。本研究采用水母雪莲红色系愈伤组织及悬浮细胞为材料，构建cDNA文库，从中克隆水母雪莲类黄酮次生代谢中的相关基因并对这些基因进行了深入的生物信息学分析、转基因研究初步确定其功能，以期了解雪莲类黄酮次生代谢的分子机制，为提高类黄酮的合成奠定基础。主要结果如下： 1. 成功地构建了水母雪莲红色系愈伤组织与悬浮细胞cDNA文库，原始文库滴度达到4×106pfu/ml，扩增文库滴度接近1011 pfu/ml，重组率达98%。PCR检测插入片段，均在0.5kb到3kb之间，1kb以上占62%。从文库中检测到了chs、dfr及Myb转录因子SmP，文库覆盖度达到要求且为PCR筛选文库提供了可能。 2. 采用部分简并引物，通过RT-PCR克隆了水母雪莲查尔酮异构酶基因Smchi特异探针，并根据这一探针序列设计特异引物，采用TD-PCR法筛选cDNA文库，获得Smchi cDNA序列，全长831bp，编码一个232氨基酸残基的蛋白。根据cDNA序列克隆了Smchi DNA序列，结果表明Smchi基因无内含子。Smchi cDNA序列与翠菊chi基因高度同源，ORF区域同源性高达84%，但推测氨基酸序列则只有79.3%。Smchi mRNA具有复杂的二级结构。SmCHI具有典型的Chalcone结构域，其二级结构与苜蓿CHI蛋白十分相似，7个α-螺旋与8个延伸链由随机结构联系起来。但其活性中心的第三个关键氨基酸残基N115为M115所取代，这一取代可能导致该蛋白无生物活性，也可能使它具有一般CHI不同的功能。构建Smchi正义、反义真核表达载体，通过农杆菌介导导入烟草，获得转正义、反义Smchi基因的烟草。转基因烟草花色未改变，但叶片总黄酮发生了显著的变化，50%转正义基因烟草总黄酮含量显著提高，最高比对照提高6倍，70%转反义基因烟草总黄酮含量显著下降，最多达85.1%，初步证明Smchi具有功能，并能有效调控烟草类黄酮次生代谢。因此，SmCHI可能是不同于已知CHI的一类新的CHI蛋白，它催化的反应可能与花色素合成无关，其反应机制也可能有所不同。 3. 伴随Smchi的克隆获得了一个黄烷酮3-羟化酶类似基因Smf3h的cDNA，全长1334bp，编码一个343aa的蛋白。根据这一cDNA序列克隆了Smf3h DNA序列，全长1630bp，结果表明该基因由4个外显子和3个内含子组成。Smf3h mRNA具有十分复杂的二级结构。 推测蛋白氨基酸同源性分析表明，SmF3H属于2OG-FeII_Oxy家族，与同一家族的的颠茄H6H的同源性为45%，与拟南芥F3H的同源性为40%，但对SmF3H、典型F3H及典型H6H推测蛋白二级结构、活性中心关键氨基酸残基的位置与相对距离、软件进行功能预测分析，发现SmF3H与F3H更相似。构建Smf3h的正义与反义真核表达载体，通过农杆菌介导导入烟草，但只获得一批转正义基因的烟草，反义基因导致烟草不能再生而未获得转反义基因烟草。转基因烟草花色未改变，叶片总黄酮也与对照相似，初步确认Smf3h与烟草类黄酮生物合成无关，而是一个既不属于f3h也不属于h6h的功能未确定的新基因。 4. 采用与克隆Smchi基因相似的方法，从cDNA文库中克隆了SmP基因cDNA，全长969bp，编码一个256 aa的蛋白质。根据cDNA序列克隆了SmP基因的DNA序列，结果表明，SmP基因无内含子。SmP基因cDNA 一级结构及mRNA二级结构预测分析表明，该基因A+T含量很高（63%），所形成二级结构以A-T配对为主，其稳定性可能较差。SmP推测蛋白序列具有R2R3-Myb转录因子的典型特征，在N-端具有两个Myb DNA-binding Domain，其二级结构与鸡Myb转录因子1A5J十分相似，与其他基因如水稻OsMYB、番茄ThMYB的同源区域主要集中在这一结构域，分别为71.3%和70.8%;C-端富含丝氨酸，与烟草NtMYB、葡萄VlMYB等类黄酮调控因子相似，都呈寡聚体分布，并具有相同的保守磷酸化位点S170与S206。构建SmP基因真核表达载体，通过农杆菌介导导入烟草，获得大量转基因烟草。转基因烟草花色未发生改变，但51%的转基因烟草叶片总黄酮含量都显著提高（0.5-6倍），表明SmP具有促进烟草类黄酮生物合成的功能，但所调控的支路与花色素合成无关。初步试验结果表明，转SmP基因烟草对蚜虫具有很高的抗性，可有效地抑制蚜虫在烟草上的生长，抑制率最高可达92%-100%。这一抗性与烟草中类黄酮的积累可能具有直接的联系，但还需要进一步的试验证明。 5. 与美国俄亥俄州立大学Erich Grotewold 博士实验室合作，完成了微型EST库50个克隆的测序并进行了分析，从中获得了水母雪莲花色素合酶基因SmANS及醛脱氢酶基因SmALDH的特异探针。根据SmANS特异探针设计引物，采用PCR从这50个克隆中筛选获得了SmANS的cDNA序列，全长1229bp，编码一个356aa的蛋白质。SmANS在cDNA水平上与同属的翠菊ANS基因高度同源，但同源区域集中在ORF区域，达到80%，mRNA 预测二级结构十分复杂;推测氨基酸序列与翠菊ANS同源性达到82.9%。SmANS属于2OG-FeII_Oxy家族，在2OG-FeII_Oxy结构域高度保守，与翠菊、甜橙ANS保守结构域同源性达到94%。预测蛋白二级结构以α-螺旋-β-折叠为主，由7个主螺旋和11个主β-折叠及随机结构连接而成，并具有2OG-FeII_Oxy家族活性中心的三个保守的组氨酸残基（His84、His235、His291）和一个天冬氨酸残基（Asp237）。 6. 根据微型EST库中获得的SmALDH特异探针设计引物，采用PCR从这50个克隆中筛选获得了SmALDH基因cDNA 序列，全长1664bp，编码一个491aa的蛋白质。SmALDH基因cDNA具有独特的碱基组成，3/-UTR富含A+T，占该区域碱基总量的80%，5/-UTR的A+T和G+C各占50%，比ORF区域（52%）还低，因此其mRNA二级结构中5/-UTR可以单独形成自身二级结构并且十分稳定，这可能影响基因的表达。这一现象在水稻、玉米等植物中也存在。SmALDH在cDNA水平上在ORF区域与拟南芥、藏红花、水稻等具有较高同源性，分别为64.03%、63.89%、63.72%，但在推测蛋白氨基酸序列水平上同源性反而较低，分别为54.9%、54.3%、54.0%。SmALDH缺少线粒体定位信号，为胞质醛脱氢酶，具有一个Aldedh 保守结构域，还具有与1OF7-H相似的以α-螺旋-β-折叠为主的二级结构，由10个主螺旋和15个主β-折叠及随机结构连接而成。由于ALDH在植物细胞乙醇发酵中具有解除醛类物质毒害的功能，因此SmALDH基因的克隆为改造细胞自身以适应发酵培养条件，解决水母雪莲细胞大规模培养中需氧问题提供了可能。

MADS-box基因在单子叶植物花发育中的功能研究

第一部分 水稻E类MADS-box 基因在花发育中的功能分析 MADS-box 基因是一个大的转录因子家族，在花发育过程中起重要作用。根据对双子叶模式植物拟南芥、金鱼草和矮牵牛遗传突变体的研究，提出了花发育的ABCDE模型。该模型认为：A、B、C、D、E代表了5类功能不同的花器官特征基因，单独或联合控制花器官的发育。A类基因控制萼片的发育;A、B和E类基因控制花瓣的发育;B、C和E类基因控制雄蕊的发育;C和E类基因控制心皮的发育;D类基因控制胚珠的发育;A和C类基因相互抑制。在这5类基因中，E类基因的功能较为复杂，它不仅是花器官特征基因，而且具有花分生组织决定性（Floral meristem determinency）。在单子叶植物中，E类基因的功能发生了很大的分化。水稻是单子叶植物的模式植物，水稻中至少有5个E类基因，分别是OsMADS1、OsMADS5、OsMADS7、OsMADS8和OsMADS34，在这5个E类基因中，除了对OsMADS1基因有较深入的研究外，对其它几个E类基因的功能了解甚少。我们在现有的研究基础上，根据对双子叶植物中E类基因的研究结果，以OsMADS8基因为出发点，利用组织原位杂交，RNAi技术对水稻中的E类基因进行了深入的研究。结果表明：OsMADS8/7基因早在花序枝梗分生组织原基就有转录，随着小穗的生长发育，逐渐集中在小穗分生组织原基，小花分生组织原基，浆片、雄蕊和心皮中表达;在胚珠形成时，内外珠被有很强的杂交信号，而且在幼胚和胚乳中也有表达。OsMADS5在幼花时期，四轮花器官均有表达，在小穗发育后期及受精后的表达方式与OsMADS8/7基因相同。OsMADS8基因被抑制后，转基因植株没有任何表型变化，说明很可能有其它E类基因弥补了OsMADS8基因的功能缺失;当同时抑制其它E类基因的表达时，转基因植株抽穗期明显延长，四轮花器官的发育均受到影响：稃片类似叶片状;浆片转变为稃片类的结构;雄蕊没有花粉;心皮具有了稃片的特点;没有胚珠结构的形成，同时失去了花分生组织决定性，在心皮的部位产生了新的花器官或花分生组织逆转为花序分生组织。说明水稻四轮花器官及胚珠的正常发育需要E类基因的参与，但其功能与双子叶植物如拟南芥，西红柿、矮牵牛等直系同源基因相比已经发生变化;水稻中的E类基因在维持花分生组织特征性方面起重要作用;另外对抽穗期有影响。 第二部分 玉米MADS-box基因ZAG2转录调控区的研究 基因的时空表达受基因中的顺式作用元件及其反式作用因子调控。顺式作用元件由位于基因编码区上游的启动子区域和位置不确定的增强子区域组成。顺式作用元件对基因表达的开启至关重要。MADS-box 基因编码一类控制花器官发育的转录因子，在花的发育过程中顺序表达。MADS-box 基因突变，花器官发生同源异型转换。研究MADS-box 基因的调控序列可以进一步揭示影响基因时空表达的内外因素。ZAG2是玉米MADS-box 基因中的D类基因，控制胚珠的发育，在胚珠和心皮的内表面特异表达。ZAG2基因有7个外显子和6个内含子。我们从玉米基因组分离到了ZAG2基因翻译起始点上游3040bp的序列，并利用5’-RACE方法鉴定出了转录起始点的位置。序列比较发现，在 5’-UTR内有一个1299bp的内含子，这个内含子可能对基因的表达有调控作用，因此构建了两个与GUS基因融合的表达载体：一个是pZAG2-1::GUS，包括翻译起始点以上所有的调控序列;另一个是pZAG2-2::GUS，去掉了5’-UTR中的内含子序列，转化水稻。结果这两个构建都没有使GUS基因在正确的位置表达。pZAG2-1::GUS构建在心皮基部类似花托的部位及稃片顶端着色，pZAG2-2::GUS构建在内外稃片沿稃脉的部位有很强的着色，说明翻译起始点上游的调控序列不足以使基因正常表达。两个构建着色方式不同，可能pZAG2-1::GUS构建在5’-UTR部分含有抑制ZAG2基因在稃片表达的顺式元件，或者启用了在5’-UTR中的转录起始点，因为在5’-UTR的内含子中也有一个很典型的TATA-box。我们推测，在ZAG2基因编码区的第一内含子可能存在另外一些使基因正常表达的增强元件，需要进一步的序列缺失实验加以验证。

一种在核苷酸水平检测自然选择的新方法

非编码区序列在基因表达调控中起着重要作用, 但其在进化过程中是否受到选择作用一直较难检 测。最近有一些研究使用平均的核苷酸替换速率与中性序列的核苷酸替换速率的比值(ω) 作为检测非编码区 总体受选择作用的指标; 但是对于非编码区而言, 了解具体哪些核苷酸受到选择作用更具有意义。我们借鉴 Nielsen & Yang (1998) 检测单个氨基酸位点是否受选择作用的思路, 在最大似然法的模型下, 提出一种在核苷 酸位点水平上对自然选择作用检测的方法。本方法能够检测在进化过程中对功能分化有重要贡献的核苷酸位 点, 包括编码和非编码区。将此方法应用于熟知的受到正选择作用的蛋白编码基因序列( HIV21 包装蛋白基因 编码区) , 均能够检测到那些已知的受到正选择的核苷酸(密码子) 位点, 说明此方法可以有效地在核苷酸位 点水平检测选择作用; 又将此方法应用于非编码区( CTGF 基因5′UTR) , 也得到了良好的结果。