The effect of nocodazole on the transfection efficiency of lipid-bilayer coated gold nanoparticles

Nonviral vectors are safer than viral systems for gene therapy applications. However, the limited efficacy always prevents their being widely used in clinical practice. Aside from searching new gene nonviral vectors, many researchers focus on finding out new substances to improve the transfection efficiency of existent vectors. In this work, we found a transfection enhancer, nocodazole (NCZ), for dimethyldioctadecylammonium (DODAB, a cationic lipid) bilayer coated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) mediated gene delivery. It was found that NCZ produces 3-fold transfection enhancement to HEK 293T cells assessed by flow cytometry (FCM). The result was further confirmed by luciferase assay, in which NCZ induced more than 5 times improvement in transfection efficiency after 48 h of transfection. The results from the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and FCM showed that NCZ did not affect the internalization of DODAB-AuNPs/DNA complexes. The trafficking of the complexes by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) indicated that the interrupted transportation of the complexes to the lysosomes contributed greatly to the transfection enhancement.

Gene transfection of hyperbranched PEI grafted by hydrophobic amino acid segment PBLG

The complex copolymer of hyperbranched polyethylenimine (PEI) with hydrophobic poly(gamma-benzyl L-glutamate) segment (PBLG) at their chain ends was synthesized. This water-soluble copolymer PEI-PBLG (PP) was characterized for DNA complexation (gel retardation assay, particle size, DNA release and DNase I protection), cell viability and in vitro transfection efficiency. The experiments showed that PP can effectively condense pDNA into particles. Size measurement of the complexes particles indicated that PP/DNA tended to form smaller nanoparticles than those of PEI/DNA, which was caused by the hydrophobic PBLG segments compressing the PP/DNA complex particles in aqueous solution. The representative average size of PP/DNA complex prepared using plasmid DNA (pEGFP-N1, pDNA) was about 96 nm. The condensed pDNA in the PP/pDNA complexes was significantly protected from enzymatic degradation by DNase1. Cytotoxicity studies by MTT colorimetric assays suggested that the PP had much lower toxicity than PEI. The in vitro transfection efficiency of PP/pDNA complexes improved a lot in HeLa cells, Vero cells and 293T cells as compared to that of PEI25K by the expression of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) as determined by flow cytometry. Thus, the water-soluble PP copolymer showed considerable potential as carriers for gene delivery.

Poly(L-lysine)-graft-chitosan copolymers: Synthesis, characterization, and gene transfection effect

Polypeptide/polysaccharide graft copolymers poly(L-lysine)-graft-chitosan (PLL-g-Chi) were prepared by ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of epsilon-benzoxycarbonyl L-lysine N-carboxyanhydrides (Z-L-lysine NCA) in the presence of 6-O-triphenylmethyl chitosan. The PLL-g-Chi copolymers were thoroughly characterized by H-1 NMR, C-13 NMR, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The number-average degree of polymerization of PLL grafted onto the chitosan backbone could be adjusted by controlling the feed ratio of NCA to 6-O-triphenylmethyl chitosan. The particle size of the complexes formed from the copolymer and calf thymus DNA was measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS). It was found in the range of 120 similar to 340 nm. The gel retardation electrophoresis showed that the PLL-g-Chi copolymers possessed better plasmid DNA-binding ability than chitosan. The gene transfection effect in HEK 293T cells of the copolymers was evaluated, and the results showed that the gene transfection ability of the copolymer was better than that of chitosan and was dependent on the PLL grafting ratio. The PLL-g-Chi copolymers could be used as effective gene delivery vectors.

Cybr, a cytokine-inducible protein that binds cytohesin-1 and regulates its activity

Cytokines regulate lymphocyte development and differentiation, but precisely how they control these processes is still poorly understood. By using microarray technology to detect cytokine-induced genes, we identified a cDNA encoding Cybr, which was increased markedly in cells incubated with IL-2 and IL-12. The mRNA was most abundant in hematopoietic cells and tissues. The predicted amino acid sequence is similar to that of GRP-1-associated protein (GRASP), a recently identified retinoic acid-induced cytohesin-binding protein. Physical interaction, dependent on the coiled-coil domains of Cybr and cytohesin-1, was demonstrated by coimmunoprecipitation of the overexpressed proteins from 293T cells. Cytohesin-1, in addition to its role in cell adhesion, is a guanine nucleotide-exchange protein activator of ARF GTPases. Acceleration of guanosine 5'-O-(thiotriphosphate) binding to ARF by cytohesin-1 in vitro was enhanced by Cybr. Because the binding protein modified activation of ADP ribosylation factor by cytohesin-1, we designate this cytokine-inducible protein Cybr (cytohesin binder and regulator).

Squaric acid/4-aminoquinoline conjugates: novel potent antiplasmodial agents

We report the synthesis and structure–activity relationship (SAR) analysis of a series of hybrid compounds containing a squaric moiety conjugated with heterocyclic moieties from well-known antimalarials. This novel series of compounds presents improved antiplasmodial activity compared with the squaric derivatives described in our previous work. Three compounds, 8b (IC50 = 99 nM), 8c (IC50 = 95 nM), and 8d (IC50 = 105 nM) had greater in vitro potency than chloroquine 1 (IC50 = 140 nM) against chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum. In addition, they were noncytotoxic against NIH 3T3 and Hek 293T cells.

Melanosomal targeting sequences from gp100 are essential for MHC class II-restricted endogenous epitope presentation and mobilization to endosomal compartments

CD4+ T lymphocytes play an important role in CD8+ T cell-mediated responses against tumors. Considering that about 20% of melanomas express major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II, it is plausible that concomitant antigenic presentation by MHC class I and class II complexes shapes positive (helper T cells) or negative (regulatory T cells) anti-tumor responses. Interestingly, gp100, a melanoma antigen, can be presented by both MHC class I and class II when expressed endogenously, suggesting that it can reach endosomal/MHC class II compartments (MIIC). Here, we demonstrated that the gp100 putative amino-terminal signal sequence and the last 70 residues in carboxy-terminus, are essential for MIIC localization and MHC class II presentation. Confocal microscopy analyses confirmed that gp100 was localized in LAMP-1+ endosomal/MIIC. Gp100-targeting sequences were characterized by deleting different sections in the carboxy-terminus (residues 590 to 661). Transfection in 293T cells, expressing MHC class I and class II molecules, revealed that specific deletions in carboxy-terminus resulted in decreased MHC class II presentation, without effects on MHC class I presentation, suggesting a role in MIIC trafficking for these deleted sections. Then, we used these gp100-targeting sequences to mobilize the green fluorescent protein (GFP) to endosomal compartments, and to allow MHC class II and class I presentation of minimal endogenous epitopes. Thus, we concluded that these specific sequences are MIIC targeting motifs. Consequently, these sequences could be included in expression cassettes for endogenously expressed tumor or viral antigens to promote MHC class II and class I presentation and optimize in vivo T cell responses, or as an in vitro tool for characterization of new MHC class II epitopes.

Influence de l'initiation de la traduction sur le changement programmé du cadre de lecture en -1 responsable de la synthèse des enzymes du virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1

Le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1) est responsable du syndrome de l’immunodéficience acquise (SIDA). Il faut identifier de nouvelles cibles pour le développement d’agents anti-VIH-1, car ce virus développe une résistance aux agents présentement utilisés. Notre but est d’approfondir la caractérisation de l’étape du changement de cadre de lecture ribosomique en -1 (déphasage -1) nécessaire à la production du précurseur des enzymes du VIH-1. Ce déphasage est programmé et effectué par une minorité de ribosomes lorsqu’ils traduisent la séquence dite glissante à un endroit spécifique de l’ARN messager (ARNm) pleine-longueur du VIH-1. L’efficacité de déphasage est contrôlée par le signal stimulateur de déphasage (SSF), une tige-boucle irrégulière située en aval de la séquence glissante. La structure du SSF est déroulée lors du passage d’un ribosome, mais elle peut se reformer ensuite. Nous avons montré que des variations de l’initiation de la traduction affectent l’efficacité de déphasage. Nous avons utilisé, dans des cellules Jurkat-T et HEK 293T, un rapporteur bicistronique où les gènes codant pour les luciférases de la Renilla (Rluc) et de la luciole (Fluc) sont séparés par la région de déphasage du VIH-1. La Rluc est produite par tous les ribosomes traduisant l’ARNm rapporteur alors que la Fluc est produite uniquement par les ribosomes effectuant un déphasage. L’initiation de ce rapporteur est coiffe-dépendante, comme pour la majorité des ARNm cellulaires. Nous avons examiné l’effet de trois inhibiteurs de l’initiation et montré que leur présence augmente l’efficacité de déphasage. Nous avons ensuite étudié l’effet de la tige-boucle TAR, qui est présente à l’extrémité 5’ de tous les ARNm du VIH-1. TAR empêche la liaison de la petite sous-unité du ribosome (40S) à l’ARNm et module aussi l’activité de la protéine kinase dépendante de l’ARN double-brin (PKR). L’activation de PKR inhibe l’initiation en phosphorylant le facteur d’initiation eucaryote 2 (eIF2) alors que l’inhibition de PKR a l’effet inverse. Nous avons étudié l’effet de TAR sur la traduction et le déphasage via son effet sur PKR en utilisant TAR en trans ou en cis, mais à une certaine distance de l’extrémité 5’ afin d’éviter l’interférence avec la liaison de la 40S. Nous avons observé qu’une faible concentration de TAR, qui active PKR, augmente l’efficacité de déphasage alors qu’une concentration élevée de TAR, qui inhibe PKR, diminue cette efficacité. Nous avons proposé un modèle où des variations de l’initiation affectent l’efficacité de déphasage en modifiant la distance entre les ribosomes parcourant l’ARNm et, donc, la probabilité qu’ils rencontrent un SSF structuré. Par la suite, nous avons déterminé l’effet de la région 5’ non traduite (UTR) de l’ARNm pleine-longueur du VIH-1 sur l’efficacité de déphasage. Cette 5’UTR contient plusieurs régions structurées, dont TAR à l’extrémité 5’, qui peut interférer avec l’initiation. Cet ARNm a une coiffe permettant une initiation coiffe-dépendante ainsi qu’un site d’entrée interne des ribosomes (IRES), permettant une initiation IRES-dépendante. Nous avons introduit cette 5’UTR, complète ou en partie, comme 5’UTR de notre ARNm rapporteur bicistronique. Nos résultats démontrent que cette 5’UTR complète inhibe l’initiation coiffe dépendante et augmente l’efficacité de déphasage et que ces effets sont dus à la présence de TAR suivie de la tige-boucle Poly(A). Nous avons aussi construit un rapporteur tricistronique où les ribosomes exprimant les luciférases utilisent obligatoirement l’IRES. Nous avons observé que cette initiation par l’IRES est faible et que l’efficacité de déphasage correspondante est également faible. Nous avons formulé une hypothèse pour expliquer cette situation. Nous avons également observé que lorsque les deux modes d’initiation sont disponibles, l’initiation coiffe dépendante est prédominante. Finalement, nous avons étudié l’effet de la protéine virale Tat sur l’initiation de la traduction et sur l’efficacité de déphasage. Nous avons montré qu’elle augmente l’initiation de la traduction et que son effet est plus prononcé lorsque TAR est située à l’extrémité 5’ des ARNm. Nous proposons un modèle expliquant les effets de Tat sur l’initiation de la traduction par l’inhibition de PKR ainsi que par des changements de l’expression de protéines cellulaires déroulant TAR. Ces résultats permettent de mieux comprendre les mécanismes régissant le déphasage du VIH-1, ce qui est essentiel pour le développement d’agents anti-déphasage.

Angiotensin-(3-4) counteracts the Angiotensin II inhibitory action on renal Ca2+-ATPase through a cAMP/PKA pathway

We recently demonstrated that Angiotensin-(3-4) [Ang-(3-4)], an Ang II-derived dipeptide, overcomes inhibition of plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase promoted by nanomolar concentrations of Ang II in basolateral membranes of renal proximal tubule cells, with involvement of a so far unknown AT(2)R-dependent and NO-independent mechanism. The present study investigates the signaling pathway triggered by Ang-(3-4) that is responsible for counteracting the inhibitory effect of Ang II, and attempts to elucidate the functional interaction of the dipeptide with Ang II at the level of AT(2)R. Stimulation by cholera toxin of G(s)alpha protein structurally linked to AT(2)R as revealed by their co-immunoprecipitation mimicked the effect of Ang-(3-4) on Ca2+-ATPase activity. Furthermore, addition of dibutyril-cAMP (db-cAMP) mimicked Ang-(3-4), whereas the specific PKA inhibitor, PKAi((5-24)) peptide, suppressed the counter-regulatory effect of Ang-(3-4) and the AT(2)R agonist, CGP42112A. Membrane-associated PKA activity was stimulated by Ang-(3-4) or CGP42112A to comparable levels as db-cAMP, and the Ang-(3-4) effect was abrogated by the AT(2)R antagonist PD123319, whereas the AT(1)R antagonist Losartan had no effect. Ang-(3-4) stimulated PKA-mediated phosphorylation of Ca2+-ATPase and activated PKA to comparable levels. Binding assays demonstrated that Ang-(3-4) could not displace H-3-Ang II from HEK 293T cells expressing AT(2)R, but 10(-10) mol/L Ang-(3-4) resulted in the appearance of a probable higher-affinity site (picomolar range) for Ang II. The results presented herein demonstrate that Ang-(3-4), acting as an allosteric enhancer, suppresses Ang II-mediated inhibition of Ca2+-ATPase through an AT(2)R/cAMP/PKA pathway, after inducing conformational changes in AT(2)R that results in generation of higher-affinity sites for Ang II. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Co-Stimulation of PAFR and CD36 Is Required for oxLDL-Induced Human Macrophages Activation

The oxidative process of LDL particles generates molecules which are structurally similar to platelet-activating factor (PAF), and some effects of oxidized LDL (oxLDL) have been shown to be dependent on PAF receptor (PAFR) activation. In a previous study, we showed that PAFR is required for upregulation of CD36 and oxLDL uptake. In the present study we analyzed the molecular mechanisms activated by oxLDL in human macrophages and the contribution of PAFR to this response. Human adherent monocytes/macrophages were stimulated with oxLDL. Uptake of oxLDL and CD36 expression were determined by flow cytometry; MAP kinases and Akt phosphorylation by Western blot; IL-8 and MCP-1 concentration by ELISA and mRNA expression by real-time PCR. To investigate the participation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, G alpha i-coupled protein or PAFR, macrophages were treated with LY294002, pertussis toxin or with the PAFR antagonists WEB2170 and CV3988, respectively before addition of oxLDL. It was found that the addition of oxLDL to human monocytes/macrophages activates the PI3K/Akt pathway which in turn activates the MAPK (p38 and JNK). Phosphorylation of Akt requires the engagement of PAFR and a G alpha i-coupled protein. The upregulation of CD36 protein and the uptake of oxLDL as well as the IL-8 production are dependent on PI3K/Akt pathway activation. The increased CD36 protein expression is dependent on PAFR and G alpha i-coupled protein. Transfection studies using HEK 293t cells showed that oxLDL uptake occurs with either PAFR or CD36, but IL-8 production requires the co-transfection of both PAFR and CD36. These findings show that PAFR has a pivotal role in macrophages response to oxLDL and suggest that pharmacological intervention at the level of PAFR activation might be beneficial in atherosclerosis.

Biological evaluation of hydroxynaphthoquinones as anti-malarials

Abstract Background The hydroxynaphthoquinones have been extensively investigated over the past 50 years for their anti-malarial activity. One member of this class, atovaquone, is combined with proguanil in Malarone®, an important drug for the treatment and prevention of malaria. Methods Anti-malarial activity was assessed in vitro for a series of 3-alkyl-2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinones (N1-N5) evaluating the parasitaemia after 48 hours of incubation. Potential cytotoxicity in HEK293T cells was assessed using the MTT assay. Changes in mitochondrial membrane potential of Plasmodium were measured using the fluorescent dye Mitrotracker Red CMXROS. Results Four compounds demonstrated IC50s in the mid-micromolar range, and the most active compound, N3, had an IC50 of 443 nM. N3 disrupted mitochondrial membrane potential, and after 1 hour presented an IC50ΔΨmit of 16 μM. In an in vitro cytotoxicity assay using HEK 293T cells N3 demonstrated no cytotoxicity at concentrations up to 16 μM. Conclusions N3 was a potent inhibitor of mitochondrial electron transport, had nanomolar activity against cultured Plasmodium falciparum and showed minimal cytotoxicity. N3 may serve as a starting point for the design of new hydroxynaphthoquinone anti-malarials.

Identification of preferentially targeted tumor-associated antigens in melanoma patients via mRNA stimulation of CD8+ blood lymphocytes

Until now, therapeutic vaccination of cancer patients has mainly relied on rather few T cell epitopes processed from structurally normal shared tumor antigens and presented by frequent HLA alleles. So far the design of these studies has not addressed the individuality of tumor-host interactions, which are not only determined by the antigenic tumor phenotype or the natural HLA polymorphism, but also by the individual T cell repertoire. The procedure described herein was developed to identify the preferential targets of the individual repertoire from a panel of known shared tumor-associated antigens. Lymphocytes were isolated from the peripheral blood of cancer patients or healthy donors and stimulated twice with autologous mRNA-transfected FastDC (Dauer et al., J Immunol. 170:4069, 2003). FastDC were generated from blood monocytes and separately transfected via lipofection with in vitro transcribed mRNAs encoding the panel antigens. Responder lymphocytes were tested on day 12 in a 20-hour IFN-g ELISPOT assay for recognition of 293T cells co-transfected pairwise with plasmids encoding the stimulation antigens and the respective individual’s HLA class I alleles. In a first step, stimulation parameters were optimized for the detection of anti-HCMV pp65 responses. A maximum amplification of pp65-specific CD8+ T cell responses was obtained at a rather low IL-2 concentration (25 IU/ml) and at a minimum APC-to-effector ratio of 1:10. Addition of IL-4, IL-7 or IL-15 did not substantially improve the stimulatory potential. The test was applied to the human melanoma models D05 and MZ2, in both of which multiple T cell-defined antigens had previously been identified by expression screening. Blood lymphocytes were stimulated in parallel with autologous tumor cells and with mRNA-transfected FastDC. In D05, T cell reactivities against three out of eleven epitopes induced by stimulation with tumor cells were also found after stimulation with mRNA-transfected FastDC. Two further T cell target epitopes were identified with mRNA but not with tumor cell stimulation. In MZ2, T cell responses against five distinct epitopes were detected on day 12 after stimulation with mRNA transfectants. The same responses were detectable after stimulation with tumor cells only on day 32. mRNA stimulations against 21 tumor-associated antigens in addition to HCMV pp65 were performed in four healthy individuals. In all cases, CD8+ T cells against HCMV pp65 could be expanded. Among tumor-associated antigens, only reactivity against Melan-A/MART-1 in association with HLA-A*0201 was detectable in one of the donors. The vaccination of patients with targets a priori known to be recognized by their T cell repertoire may help to improve the outcome of therapeutic vaccination.

Role of the Transcription Factor Sox2 in the Osteogenic Lineage

The Sox2 transcription factor is modified by sumoylation at the K247 position although the addition of SUMO1 and Pias1 promotes the sumoylation of Sox2 at the additional K123 site. The role of sumoylation on Sox2 biological functions was analyzed by comparing the activity of WT and sumoylation mutants on the transcription of the FGF4 gene in HeLa cells and on the downregulation of the Wnt pathwayvin 293T cells. When SUMO1 and PIAS1 promote the sumoylation of WT Sox2, the transcriptional activity of the FGF4 promoter is inhibited showing that Sox2 sumoylation is necessary for the repression function. However, there is no effect of Sox2 sumoylation on β-Catenin activity. Since we were interested in osteoblast differentiation we set up an inducible system for Sox2 in primary osteoblasts. Following Sox2 doxycycline induction, 158 genes were differentially expressed: 120 up-regulated and 38 down-regulated. We annotated as direct Sox2 targets a number of genes involved in osteoblast biology and we further analyzed 3 of them involved in the BMP pathway. The results show that Sox2 regulates the BMP pathway without affecting SMAD phosphorylation, and that Sox2 sumoylation is not necessary for this function. We also found that genes involved in the Hippo pathway were direct Sox2 targets. As the Hippo pathway is activated by Sox2 and Sox2 interacts with the NF2 promoter, we checked the effect of Sox2 on the expression of NF2. We showed that Sox2 down-regulates the transcriptional activity of the NF2 promoter, allowing the transcription of the YAP/TEAD genes in osteoblasts, thus acting as an upstream regulator of the Hippo pathway. We conclude that Sox2 induction in osteoblasts triggers FGF dependent inhibition of the BMP, Wnt and Hippo pathways.

Funktionelle HPMA-Copolymere zur möglichen Anwendung in der Tumor-Immuntherapie

Der Fokus dieser Arbeit lag in der Synthese von funktionellen HPMA-Copolymeren, sowohl für die Darstellung definierter Polymer-Antikörper Konjugate, als auch zum effizienten Transport von p-DNA in Polymer-DNA Komplexen (Polyplexe). Nach ausführlicher physikalischer und chemischer Charakterisierung wurden gezielt ihre Wechselwirkungen mit (Immun)-Zellen untersucht und so ihr Potential für die Verwendung in der Tumor-Immuntherapie aufgezeigt.rnFür das gezielte Ansprechen von bestimmten Immunzellen mit Schlüsselfunktionen besitzen monoklonale Antikörper ein großes Potential. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gelang die Darstellung definierter Polymer-Antikörper Konjugate über das gezielte Einführen von Thiol-Gruppen an Antikörper und die Synthese eng verteilter, Maleinimid funktionalisierter HPMA-Copolymere. Diese sehr gut definierten, funktionellen HPMA-Copolymere konnten über die Kombination der RAFT-Polymerisation und Reaktivester Polymeren gewonnen werden. Unterschiedliche Polymerstrukturen ermöglichten die Synthese verschiedener Arten von Polymer-Antikörper Konjugaten. Speziell die Untersuchung der verschiedenen Konjugate aus dem für dendritische Zellen spezifischen aDEC-205 Antikörper an Immunzellen aus dem Knochenmark von Mäusen lieferten wertvolle Erkenntnisse über Struktur-Wirkungsbeziehungen und zeigten die Möglichkeit der gezielten Adressierung von Immunzellen mit Schlüsselfunktionen bei der Aktivierung einer (Tumor)-Immunabwehr am Beispiel von dendritischen Zellen. Gleichzeitig erlaubt der Syntheseweg sowohl die gleichzeitige und kontrollierte Einführung auch komplexerer Stimuli am Polymerrückgrat als auch die Verwendung verschiedener Antikörper.rnÜber die Kombination der RAFT-Polymerisation und polymeren Reaktivestern wurde ebenso die Synthese von neuartigen kationisch-hydrophilen Polylysin-b-poly(HPMA) Blockcopolymeren als effiziente Transporter für den komplexen aber wirkungsvollen Wirkstoff p-DNA in Form von Polymer-DNA Komplexen (Polyplexe) realisiert. Da diese Polyplexe gleichzeitig eine Abschirmung der sensitiven p-DNA über eine poly(HPMA)-Korona vermitteln, stellen sie allgemein ein geeignetes Transportmittel für einen therapeutischen Transport von p-DNA dar. Diese Polyplexe sind in der Lage, humane Nierenkarzinomzellen (HEK-293T Zelllinie) zu transfizieren ohne signifikante Zytotoxizität zu zeigen. Darüber hinaus gelang eine große Steigerung der Transfektionseffizienz, ohne eine gleichzeitige Erhöhung der Zytotoxizität, durch die gezielte Einführung von Redox-stimuliresponsiven Disulfid-Gruppen zwischen den einzelnen Blöcken. Diese Polyplexe stellen einen polymeren Vektor zur transkriptionellen Regulierung von Zellen dar, zum Beispiel für die transkriptionelle Aktivierung von dendritischen Zellen, durch die Verwendung speziell dafür modifizierter p-DNA-Konstrukte. rnDurch die Verknüpfung einer ortsspezifischen enzymatischen Kopplung und kupferfreien Cyclooctin-Azid Kupplung gelang die kontrollierte und kovalente Modifizierung von polymeren Mizellen mit aDEC-205 Antikörpern an der hydrophilen poly(HPMA)-Korona. Diese Methode bietet die Möglichkeit der Anbindung der effektiven aber anspruchsvollen Erkennungsstruktur Antikörper an komplexere Polymerstrukturen und andere nano-partikulären Systeme, zum Beispiel an die zuvor genannten Polyplexe, um eine zellspezifische und verbesserte Aufnahme und Prozessierung zu erreichen.rnDiese Studien zeigen somit, sowohl die Möglichkeit der selektiven Addressierung von Immunzellen mit Schlüsselfunktionen wie dendritischer Zellen, als auch die Möglichkeit der transkriptionellen Regulation von Zellen durch Polyplexe. Sie stellen somit einen ersten Schritt zur Herstellung funktioneller, nanopartikulärer Systeme zur Verwendung in der Tumor-Immuntherapie dar. rn

Effects on hepatocellular carcinoma of doxorubicin-loaded immunoliposomes designed to target the VEGFR-2

To maintain a tumour vasculature in proportion of the tumour growth, the endothelial cells proliferate and up-regulate the expression of the VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR-2), whose expression is restricted to this cell type. This specificity implies that one therapeutically target the tumour endothelium. We investigated the use of immunoliposomes (IL), containing conjugated Fab' fragments of the monoclonal rat anti-VEGFR-2 antibody DC101 (DC101-IL) to cargo doxorubicin to the tumour endothelium. In vitro, fluorescein-labelled IL displayed a 7 fold better binding to VEGFR-2-positive 293T cells in comparison to unspecific liposomes. Balb/C mice were injected subcutaneously with syngeneic hepatocellular carcinoma cells. One set of animals was treated with DC101-IL filled with doxorubicin when the tumours were bigger than 400 mm3. A specific delivery of doxorubicin to endothelial cells of the tumour vessels could be demonstrated by the red fluorescence of doxorubicin with laser scanning microscopy, but neither a delay of tumour growth nor a shrinking of the tumour mass was observed. Yet necrosis in the tumours treated with doxorubicin containing vehicles was larger than in the tumours of the control groups. A second set of animals was treated with DC101-IL filled with doxorubicin when the tumours were smaller than 1 mm3. DC101-IL filled with doxorubicin led to a significant delay in tumour growth up to 7 weeks compared to empty DC101-IL, free doxorubicin, and HEPES/Glucose (HEPES/Glucose vs. DOX-DC101-IL, p = 0.001; unpaired, two-tailed Student's t-test) and to a higher amount of necrotic areas in the tumours (p = 0.053; 1 way ANOVA with 4 groups). These findings suggest that IL designed to bind specifically to VEGFR-2 can be used to deliver doxorubicin to the tumour endothelium and may impair the "angiogenic switch" of the tumours.

Understanding the role of argininosuccinate lyase transcript variants in the clinical and biochemical variability of the urea cycle disorder argininosuccinic aciduria

Argininosuccinic aciduria (ASA) is an autosomal recessive urea cycle disorder caused by deficiency of argininosuccinate lyase (ASL) with a wide clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to severe hyperammonemic neonatal onset life-threatening courses. We investigated the role of ASL transcript variants in the clinical and biochemical variability of ASA. Recombinant proteins for ASL wild type, mutant p.E189G, and the frequently occurring transcript variants with exon 2 or 7 deletions were (co-)expressed in human embryonic kidney 293T cells. We found that exon 2-deleted ASL forms a stable truncated protein with no relevant activity but a dose-dependent dominant negative effect on enzymatic activity after co-expression with wild type or mutant ASL, whereas exon 7-deleted ASL is unstable but seems to have, nevertheless, a dominant negative effect on mutant ASL. These findings were supported by structural modeling predictions for ASL heterotetramer/homotetramer formation. Illustrating the physiological relevance, the predominant occurrence of exon 7-deleted ASL was found in two patients who were both heterozygous for the ASL mutant p.E189G. Our results suggest that ASL transcripts can contribute to the highly variable phenotype in ASA patients if expressed at high levels. Especially, the exon 2-deleted ASL variant may form a heterotetramer with wild type or mutant ASL, causing markedly reduced ASL activity.