Reliability of the input-output properties of the cortico-spinal pathway obtained from transcranial magnetic and electrical stimulation

The purpose of this experiment was to assess the test-retest reliability of input-output parameters of the cortico-spinal pathway derived from transcranial magnetic (TMS) and electrical (TES) stimulation at rest and during muscle contraction. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded from the first dorsal interosseous muscle of eight individuals on three separate days. The intensity of TMS at rest was varied from 5% below threshold to the maximal output of the stimulator. During trials in which the muscle was active, TMS and TES intensities were selected that elicited MEPs of between 150 and 300 X at rest. MEPs were evoked while the participants exerted torques up to 50% of their maximum capacity. The relationship between MEP size and stimulus intensity at rest was sigmoidal (R-2 = 0.97). Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) ranged between 0.47 and 0.81 for the parameters of the sigmoid function. For the active trials, the slope and intercept of regression equations of MEP size on level of background contraction were obtained more reliably for TES (ICC = 0.63 and 0.78, respectively) than for TMS (ICC = 0.50 and 0.53, respectively), These results suggest that input-output parameters of the cortico-spinal pathway may be reliably obtained via transcranial stimulation during longitudinal investigations of cortico-spinal plasticity. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Stacked photo-sensing devices based on SiC alloys A non-pixelled architecture for imagers and demultiplexing devices

In this review paper different designs based on stacked p-i'-n-p-i-n heterojunctions are presented and compared with the single p-i-n sensing structures. The imagers utilise self-field induced depletion layers for light detection and a modulated laser beam for sequential readout. The effect of the sensing element structure, cell configurations (single or tandem), and light source properties (intensity and wavelength) are correlated with the sensor output characteristics (light-to-dark sensivity, spatial resolution, linearity and S/N ratio). The readout frequency is optimized showing that scans speeds up to 104 lines per second can be achieved without degradation in the resolution. Multilayered p-i'-n-p-i-n heterostructures can also be used as wavelength-division multiplexing /demultiplexing devices in the visible range. Here the sensor element faces the modulated light from different input colour channels, each one with a specific wavelength and bit rate. By reading out the photocurrent at appropriated applied bias, the information is multiplexed or demultiplexed and can be transmitted or recovered again. Electrical models are present to support the sensing methodologies.

Composition of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Spain: an Input-Output Analysis

Extending the traditional input-output model to account for the environmental impacts of production processes reveals the channels by which environmental burdens are transmitted throughout the economy. In particular, the environmental input-output approach is a useful technique for quantifying the changes in the levels of greenhouse emissions caused by changes in the final demand for production activities. The inputoutput model can also be used to determine the changes in the relative composition of greenhouse gas emissions due to exogenous inflows. In this paper we describe a method for evaluating how the exogenous changes in sectorial demand, such as changes in private consumption, public consumption, investment and exports, affect the relative contribution of the six major greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol to total greenhouse emissions. The empirical application is for Spain, and the economic and environmental data are for the year 2000. Our results show that there are significant differences in the effects of different sectors on the composition of greenhouse emissions. Therefore, the final impact on the relative contribution of pollutants will basically depend on the activity that receives the exogenous shock in final demand, because there are considerable differences in the way, and the extent to which, individual activities affect the relative composition of greenhouse gas emissions. Keywords: Greenhouse emissions, composition of emissions, sectorial demand, exogenous shock.

Ecological and Economic Impacts within the Environmental Input-Output Framework

The environmental input-output approach reveals the channels through which the environmental burdens of production activities are transmitted throughout the economy. This paper uses the input-output framework and analyses the changes in Spanish emission multipliers during the period 1995-2000. By decomposing the global changes in multipliers into different components, it is possible to evaluate separately the economic and ecological impacts captured by the environmental input-output model. Specifically, in this study we distinguish between the effects on multipliers caused by changes in emission coefficients (the ecological impacts) and the effects on multipliers caused by changes in technical coefficients (the economic impacts). Our results show a significant improvement in the ecological impacts of production activities, which contributed negatively to changes in emission multipliers. They also show a deterioration in the economic impacts, which contributed positively to changes in emission multipliers. Together, these two effects lead to a small reduction in global multipliers during the period of analysis. Our results also show significant differences in the individual behaviour of different sectors in terms of their contribution to multiplier changes. Since there are considerable differences in the way individual sectors affect the changes in emission levels, and in the intensity of these effects, this means that the final effects will basically depend on the activity considered. Keywords: emission multipliers, multipliers' changes, ecological impacts, economic impacts.

Economic impact of alternative policy measures implemented on the energy activities of the Catalan production system: an input-output analysis

The aim of the paper is to analyse the economic impact of alternative policies implemented on the energy activities of the Catalan production system. Specifically, we analyse the effects of a tax on intermediate energy uses, a reduction in the final production of energy, and a reduction in intermediate energy uses. The methodology involves two versions of the input-output price model: a competitive price formulation and a mark-up price formulation. The input-output price framework will make it possible to evaluate how the alternative measures modify production prices, consumption prices, private welfare, and intermediate energy uses. The empirical application is for the Catalan economy and uses economic data for the year 2001.

An interregional input-output analysis of the pollution content of trade flows and environmental trade balances between five states in the US Mid-West

In this paper we attempt an empirical application of the multi-region input-output (MRIO) method in order to enumerate the pollution content of interregional trade flows between five Mid-West regions/states in the US –Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan and Wisconsin – and the rest of the US. This allows us to analyse some very important issues in terms of the nature and significance of interregional environmental spillovers within the US Mid-West and the existence of pollution ‘trade balances’ between states. Our results raise questions in terms of the extent to which authorities at State level can control local emissions where they are limited in the way some emissions can be controlled, particularly with respect to changes in demand elsewhere in the Mid-West and US. This implies a need for policy co-ordination between national and state level authorities in the US to meet emissions reductions targets. The existence of an environmental trade balances between states also raises issues in terms of net losses/gains in terms of pollutants as a result of interregional trade within the US and whether, if certain activities can be carried out using less polluting technology in one region relative to others, it is better for the US as a whole if this type of relationship exists.

Responsibility for regional waste generation: A single region extended input-output analysis with uni-directional trade flows

The paper uses a regional input-output (IO) framework and data derived on waste generation by industry to examine regional accountability for waste generation. In addition to estimating a series of industry output-waste coefficients, the paper considers two methods for waste attribution but focuses first on one (trade endogenised linear attribution system (TELAS)) that permits a greater focus on private and public final consumption as the main exogenous driver of waste generation. Second, the paper uses a domestic technology assumption (DTA) to consider a regional ‘waste footprint’ where local consumption requirements are assumed to be met through domestic production.

An HEI-Disaggregated Input-Output Table for Scotland

This paper describes how the education sector of the Scottish Input-Output tables is disaggregated to identify a separate sector for each of Scotland’s twenty Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The process draws on accounting and survey data to accurately determine the incomes and expenditures of each institution. In particular we emphasise determining the HEIs incomes source of origin to inform their treatment, as endogenous or exogenous, in subsequent analyses. The HEI-disaggregated Input- Output table provides a useful descriptive snapshot of the Scottish economy and the role of HEIs within it for a particular year, 2006. The table can be used to derive multipliers and conduct various impact studies of each institution or the sector as a whole. The table is furthermore useful to calibrate other multi-sectoral, HEI disaggregated models of regional economies, including Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) and computable general equilibrium (CGE) models.

An HEI-Disaggregated Input-Output Table for Wales

This paper describes how the education sector of the Welsh Input-Output tables is disaggregated to identify a separate sector for each of Wales’s twelve Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The process draws on accounting and survey data to accurately determine the incomes and expenditures of each institution. In particular we emphasise determining the HEIs incomes source of origin to inform their treatment, as endogenous or exogenous, in subsequent analyses. The HEI-disaggregated Input-Output table provides a useful descriptive snapshot of the Welsh economy and the role of HEIs within it for a particular year, 2006. The table can be used to derive multipliers and conduct various impact studies of each institution or the sector as a whole. The table is furthermore useful to calibrate other multi-sectoral, HEI-disaggregated models of regional economies, including Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) and computable general equilibrium (CGE) models.

An HEI-Disaggregated Input-Output Table for Northern-Ireland

This paper describes how the education sector of an Input-Output table for Northern Ireland is disaggregated to identify a separate sector for each of the four Northern Irish Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The process draws on accounting and survey data to accurately determine the incomes and expenditures of each institution. In particular we emphasise determining the HEIs incomes source of origin to inform their treatment, as endogenous or exogenous, in subsequent analyses. The HEI-disaggregated Input-Output table provides a useful descriptive snapshot of the Northern Irish economy and the role of HEIs within it for a particular year, 2006. The table can be used to derive multipliers and conduct various impact studies of each institution or the sector as a whole. The table is furthermore useful to calibrate other multisectoral, HEI-disaggregated models of regional economies, including Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) and computable general equilibrium (CGE) models.

Economic and environmental effects of the CO2 taxation: an input-output analysis for Spain

CO2 emissions induced by human activities are the major cause of climate change; hence, strong environmental policy that limits the growing dependence on fossil fuel is indispensable. Tradable permits and environmental taxes are the usual tools used in CO2 reduction strategies. Such economic tools provide incentives to polluting industries to reduce their emissions through market signals. The aim of this work is to investigate the direct and indirect effects of an environmental tax on Spanish products and services. We apply an environmentally extended input-output (EIO) model to identify CO2 emission intensities of products and services and, accordingly, we estimate the tax proportional to these intensities. The short-term price effects are analyzed using an input-output price model. The effect of tax introduction on consumption prices and its influence on consumers’ welfare are determined. We also quantify the environmental impacts of such taxation in terms of the reduction in CO2 emissions. The results, based on the Spanish economy for the year 2007, show that sectors with relatively poor environmental profile are subjected to high environmental tax rates. And consequently, applying a CO2 tax on these sectors, increases production prices and induces a slight increase in consumer price index and a decrease in private welfare. The revenue from the tax could be used to counter balance the negative effects on social welfare and also to stimulate the increase of renewable energy shares in the most impacting sectors. Finally, our analysis highlights that the environmental and economic goals cannot be met at the same time with the environmental taxation and this shows the necessity of finding other (complementary or alternative) measures to ensure both the economic and ecological efficiencies. Keywords: CO2 emissions; environmental tax; input-output model, effects of environmental taxation.

Auguste Ott on Commercial Crises and Distributive Justice: An Early Input-Output Scheme

In 1851 the French Social economist Auguste Ott discussed the problem of gluts and commercial crises, together with the issue of distributive justice between workers in co-operative societies. He did so by means of a 'simple reproduction scheme' sharing some features with modern intersectoral transactions tables, in particular in terms of their graphical representation. This paper presents Ott's theory of crises (which was based on the disappointment of expectations) and the context of his model, and discusses its peculiarities, supplying a new piece for the reconstruction of the prehistory of input-output analysis.

Relations and Transductions Realized by Restarting Automata

Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Analyse verschiedener Formalismen zur Berechnung binärer Wortrelationen. Dabei ist die Grundlage aller hier ausgeführten Betrachtungen das Modell der Restart-Automaten, welches 1995 von Jancar et. al. eingeführt wurde. Zum einen wird das bereits für Restart-Automaten bekannte Konzept der input/output- und proper-Relationen weiterführend untersucht, sowie auf Systeme von zwei parallel arbeitenden und miteinander kommunizierenden Restart-Automaten (PC-Systeme) erweitert. Zum anderen wird eine Variante der Restart-Automaten eingeführt, die sich an klassischen Automatenmodellen zur Berechnung von Relationen orientiert. Mit Hilfe dieser Mechanismen kann gezeigt werden, dass einige Klassen, die durch input/output- und proper-Relationen von Restart Automaten definiert werden, mit den traditionellen Relationsklassen der Rationalen Relationen und der Pushdown-Relationen übereinstimmen. Weiterhin stellt sich heraus, dass das Konzept der parallel kommunizierenden Automaten äußerst mächtig ist, da bereits die Klasse der proper-Relationen von monotonen PC-Systemen alle berechenbaren Relationen umfasst. Der Haupteil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den so genannten Restart-Transducern, welche um eine Ausgabefunktion erweiterte Restart-Automaten sind. Es zeigt sich, dass sich insbesondere dieses Modell mit seinen verschiedenen Erweiterungen und Einschränkungen dazu eignet, eine umfassende Hierarchie von Relationsklassen zu etablieren. In erster Linie seien hier die verschiedenen Typen von monotonen Restart-Transducern erwähnt, mit deren Hilfe viele interessante neue und bekannte Relationsklassen innerhalb der längenbeschränkten Pushdown-Relationen charakterisiert werden. Abschließend wird, im Kontrast zu den vorhergehenden Modellen, das nicht auf Restart-Automaten basierende Konzept des Übersetzens durch Beobachtung ("Transducing by Observing") zur Relationsberechnung eingeführt. Dieser, den Restart-Transducern nicht unähnliche Mechanismus, wird im weitesten Sinne dazu genutzt, einen anderen Blickwinkel auf die von Restart-Transducern definierten Relationen einzunehmen, sowie eine obere Schranke für die Berechnungskraft der Restart-Transducer zu gewinnen.

Input/output measurements of otoacoustic emissions and differential diagnosis of cochlear function

This study provides detailed information on the ability of healthy ears to generate distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs).