Capillary electrophoretic enantioselective determination of zopiclone and its impurities

A capillary electrophoretic enantioselective method with UV detection was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of zopiclone enantiomers and its impurities, zopiclone-N-oxide enantiomers, and 2-amino-5-chloropyridine, in tablets. The analytes were extracted from the tablets using ACN and were separated in an uncoated fused-silica capillary (50 mu m, 42 cm effective length, 50 cm total length) using 80 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 2.5 and 5 mM carboxymethyl-beta-cyclodextrin as running buffer. The analytes and the internal standard (trimethoprim) were detected at 305 and 200 nm, respectively. A voltage of 27 kV was applied and the capillary temperature was maintained at 25 degrees C. All enantiomers were analyzed within 8 min and linear calibration curves over the concentration range of 0.40.8 mg mL-1 for each zopiclone enantiomer, 0.81.6 mu g mL-1 for 2-amino-5-chloropyridine and 0.40.8 mu g mL-1 for each zopiclone-N-oxide enantiomer were obtained. The coefficients of correlation obtained for the linear curves were greater than 0.99. The intra-day and inter-day accuracy and precision were lower than 2% for all analytes. This validated method was employed to study the degradation and racemization of zopiclone under stress conditions. This application demonstrated the importance of a stability-indicating assay method for this drug.

On the formation of carbonate adducts of fatty alcohols, sterols, and sugars in biological conditions

The formation and properties of carbonate adducts of some organic hydroxy compounds in aqueous medium were investigated. Fatty alcohols and sugars were chosen as representative classes of biological interest, and the medium was carbonated aqueous solution with pH ranging from 3.0 to 8.3. Capillary electrophoresis with two capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detectors (C4Ds) was used for quantitation and to obtain the mobility of the monoalkyl carbonates (MACs), which were used to determine the equilibrium and kinetic constants of the reaction as well as the diffusion coefficients. For increasing chain length of the alcohols, the equilibrium constant tends to the unit, which suggests that fatty alcohols can form the corresponding MACs. The formation of MACs for cyclohexanol and cyclopentanol also suggest the existence of similar species for sterols. Carbonate adducts of fructose, glucose, and sucrose were also detected, which suggests that these counterparts of the well-known phosphates can also occur in the cytosol. Our calculations suggest that one in 1000 to one in 10 000 molecules of these hydroxy compounds would be available as the corresponding MAC in such a medium. Experiments carried out at pH values less than 3.0 showed that there is a catalytic effect of hydronium on the interconversion of bicarbonate and a MAC. Taking into account the great number of hydroxy compounds similar to the ones investigated and that bicarbonate is ubiquitous in living cells, one can anticipate the existence of a whole new class of carbonate adducts of these metabolites.

Disposable polyester-toner electrophoresis microchips for DNA analysis

Microchip electrophoresis has become a powerful tool for DNA separation, offering all of the advantages typically associated with miniaturized techniques: high speed, high resolution, ease of automation, and great versatility for both routine and research applications. Various substrate materials have been used to produce microchips for DNA separations, including conventional (glass, silicon, and quartz) and alternative (polymers) platforms. In this study, we perform DNA separation in a simple and low-cost polyester-toner (PeT)-based electrophoresis microchip. PeT devices were fabricated by a direct-printing process using a 600 dpi-resolution laser printer. DNA separations were performed on PeT chip with channels filled with polymer solutions (0.5% m/v hydroxyethylcellulose or hydroxypropylcellulose) at electric fields ranging from 100 to 300Vcm(-1). Separation of DNA fragments between 100 and 1000 bp, with good correlation of the size of DNA fragments and mobility, was achieved in this system. Although the mobility increased with increasing electric field, separations showed the same profile regardless of the electric field. The system provided good separation efficiency (215 000 plates per m for the 500 bp fragment) and the separation was completed in 4 min for 1000 bp fragment ladder. The cost of a given chip is approximately $0.15 and it takes less than 10 minutes to prepare a single device.

Speciation of tetravalent plutonium in contact with humic substances and kaolinite under environmental conditions

Plutonium represents the major contribution to the radiotoxicity of spent nuclear fuel over storage times of up to several hundred thousand years. The speciation of plutonium in aquifer systems is important in order to assess the risks of high-level nuclear waste disposal and to acquire a deep knowledge of the mobilization and immobilization behavior of plutonium. In aqueous solutions, plutonium can coexist in four oxidation states and each one of them has different chemical and physical behavior. Tetravalent plutonium is the most abundant under natural conditions. Therefore, detailed speciation studies of tetravalent plutonium in contact with humic substances (HS) and kaolinite as a model clay mineral have been performed in this work. Plutonium is present in the environment at an ultratrace level. Therefore, speciation of Pu at the ultratrace level is mandatory. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) coupled to resonance ionization mass spectrometry (RIMS) was used as a new speciation method. CE-RIMS enables to improve the detection limit for plutonium species by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude compared to the previously developed CE-ICP-MS. For understanding the behavior of Pu(IV) in aqueous systems, redox reactions, complexation, and sorption behavior of plutonium were studied. The redox behavior of plutonium in contact with humic acid (HA) and fulvic acid (FA) was investigated. A relatively fast reduction of Pu(VI) in contact with HS was observed. It was mainly reduced to Pu(IV) and Pu(III) within a couple of weeks. The time dependence of the Pu(IV) complexation with Aldrich HA was investigated and a complex constant (logßLC) between 6.4 - 8.4 of Pu(IV) was determined by means of ultrafiltration taking into account the loading capacity (LC). The sorption of tetravalent plutonium onto kaolinite was investigated as a function of pH in batch experiments under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The sorption edge was found at about pH = 1 and a maximum sorption at around pH = 8.5. In the presence of CO2 at pH > 8.5, the sorption of plutonium was decreased probably due to the formation of soluble carbonate complexes. For comparison, the sorption of Th(IV) onto kaolinite was also investigated and consistent results were found. The Pu(IV) sorption onto kaolinite was studied by XANES and EXAFS at pH 1, 4, 9 and the sorbed species on kaolinite surface was Pu(IV). Depending on the pH, only 1 - 10 % of the sorbed plutonium is desorbed from kaolinite and released into a fresh solution at the same pH value. Furthermore, the sorption of HS onto kaolinite was studied as a function of pH at varying concentrations of HS, as a prerequisite to understand the more complex ternary system. The sorption of HA onto kaolinite was found to be higher than that of FA. The investigation of the ternary systems (plutonium-kaolinite-humic substances) is performed as a function of pH, concentration of HS, and the sequences of adding the reactants. The presence of HS strongly influences the sorption of Pu(IV) onto kaolinite over the entire pH range. For comparison, the influence of HS on the sorption of Th(IV) onto kaolinite was also investigated and a good agreement with the results of Pu(IV) was obtained.

Synthese und Charakterisierung von zylindrischen Bürsten mit Polypeptidseitenketten

In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die grafting-from-Methode verschiedene geschützte Polypeptidbürsten basierend auf L-glutaminsäure, L-asparaginsäure, L-lysin und L-ornithin synthetisch zugänglich sind. Zur Verwirklichung dieser Synthesestrategie wurde mehrstufig ein Makroinitiator auf Basis von N-methacrylamid-1,6-diaminohexan hergestellt, der die ringöffnende Polymerisation von Leuchs´schen Anhydriden zur Entwicklung von geschützten Polypeptidseitenketten initiieren kann. Durch stark saure bzw. alkalische Abspaltbedingungen war es möglich, die Schutzgruppen bei allen geschützten Bürsten bis auf eine Spezies erfolgreich zu entfernen. Weitergehende Untersuchungen an den positiv bzw. negativ geladenen Polyelektrolytbürsten mittels statischer Lichtstreuung und Kapillarelektrophorese zeigten, dass lediglich die Z-geschützten Poly-L-lysinbürsten ohne Kettenabbau entschützt werden konnten. In allen anderen Fällen wurden nach Abspaltung der Schutzgruppen lineare Kettenfragmente detektiert. Durch die Zugabe von NaClO4 oder Methanol zu den wässrigen Lösungen der Poly-L-lysinbürsten konnte mittels CD-Spektroskopie gezeigt werden, dass die Seitenketten von einer ungeordneten Konformation in eine helikale Konformation übergehen. In weiterführenden Experimenten wurde mittels statischer Lichtstreuung, dynamischer Lichtstreuung, SAXS, und AFM-Aufnahmen in Lösung bewiesen, dass die helikale Konformation der Seitenketten eine deutliche Abnahme des Zylinderquerschnitts und des Querschnittträgheitsradius zur Folge hat, die Topologie der Bürste allerdings unverändert bleibt. Weiterhin konnte mittels Kapillarelektrophorese die elektrophoretische Mobilität der Poly-L-lysinbürsten und ihrer linearen Analoga bestimmt werden. Mit diesen Resultaten war es in Kombination mit statischen Lichtstreuexperimenten möglich, die effektive Ladung von linearem und verzweigten Poly-L-lysin nach einer Theorie von Muthukumar zu berechnen. Das Ergebnis dieser Rechnungen bestätigt die Ergebnisse früherer Untersuchungen von Peter Dziezok, der in seiner Dissertation durch Leitfähigkeits und Lichtstreumessungen an linearem PVP und PVP-Bürsten herausfand, dass die effektive Ladung von Polymerbürsten mindestens um einen Faktor 10 kleiner ist als bei den korrespondierenden linearen Analoga.

Understanding Electrophoretic Stacking Of In-Capillary Generated Reaction Products

The separation of small molecules by capillary electrophoresis is governed by a complex interplay among several physical effects. Until recently, a systematic understanding of how the influence of all of these effects is observed experimentally has remained unclear. The work presented in this thesis involves the use of transient isotachophoretic stacking (tITP) and computer simulation to improve and better understand an in-capillary chemical assay for creatinine. This assay involves the use of electrophoretically mediated micro-analysis (EMMA) to carry out the Jaffé reaction inside a capillary tube. The primary contribution of this work is the elucidation of the role of the length and concentration of the hydroxide plug used to achieve tITP stacking of the product formed by the in-capillary EMMA/Jaffé method. Computer simulation using SIMUL 5.0 predicts that a 3-4 fold gain in sensitivity can be recognized by timing the tITP stacking event such that the Jaffé product peak is at its maximum height as that peak is electrophoresing past the detection window. Overall, the length of the hydroxide plug alters the timing of the stacking event and lower concentration plugs of hydroxide lead to more rapidly occurring tITP stacking events. Also, the inclusion of intentional tITP stacking in the EMMA/Jaffé method improves the sensitivity of the assay, including creatinine concentrations within the normal biological range. Ultimately, improvement in assay sensitivity can be rationally designed by using the length and concentration of the hydroxide plug to engineer the timing of the tITP stacking event such that stacking occurs as the Jaffé product is passing the detection window.

Modeling of electroosmotic and electrophoretic mobilization in capillary and microchip isoelectric focusing

Our dynamic capillary electrophoresis model which uses material specific input data for estimation of electroosmosis was applied to investigate fundamental aspects of isoelectric focusing (IEF) in capillaries or microchannels made from bare fused-silica (FS), FS coated with a sulfonated polymer, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). Input data were generated via determination of the electroosmotic flow (EOF) using buffers with varying pH and ionic strength. Two models are distinguished, one that neglects changes of ionic strength and one that includes the dependence between electroosmotic mobility and ionic strength. For each configuration, the models provide insight into the magnitude and dynamics of electroosmosis. The contribution of each electrophoretic zone to the net EOF is thereby visualized and the amount of EOF required for the detection of the zone structures at a particular location along the capillary, including at its end for MS detection, is predicted. For bare FS, PDMS and PMMA, simulations reveal that EOF is decreasing with time and that the entire IEF process is characterized by the asymptotic formation of a stationary steady-state zone configuration in which electrophoretic transport and electroosmotic zone displacement are opposite and of equal magnitude. The location of immobilization of the boundary between anolyte and most acidic carrier ampholyte is dependent on EOF, i.e. capillary material and anolyte. Overall time intervals for reaching this state in microchannels produced by PDMS and PMMA are predicted to be similar and about twice as long compared to uncoated FS. Additional mobilization for the detection of the entire pH gradient at the capillary end is required. Using concomitant electrophoretic mobilization with an acid as coanion in the catholyte is shown to provide sufficient additional cathodic transport for that purpose. FS capillaries dynamically double coated with polybrene and poly(vinylsulfonate) are predicted to provide sufficient electroosmotic pumping for detection of the entire IEF gradient at the cathodic column end.

Metabolomics demonstrates divergent responses of two Eucalyptus species to water stress

Past studies of water stress in Eucalyptus spp. generally highlighted the role of fewer than five “important” metabolites, whereas recent metabolomic studies on other genera have shown tens of compounds are affected. There are currently no metabolite profiling data for responses of stress-tolerant species to water stress. We used GC–MS metabolite profiling to examine the response of leaf metabolites to a long (2 month) and severe (Ψpredawn < −2 MPa) water stress in two species of the perennial tree genus Eucalyptus (the mesic Eucalyptus pauciflora and the semi-arid Eucalyptus dumosa). Polar metabolites in leaves were analysed by GC–MS and inorganic ions by capillary electrophoresis. Pressure–volume curves and metabolite measurements showed that water stress led to more negative osmotic potential and increased total osmotically active solutes in leaves of both species. Water stress affected around 30–40% of measured metabolites in E. dumosa and 10–15% in E. pauciflora. There were many metabolites that were affected in E. dumosa but not E. pauciflora, and some that had opposite responses in the two species. For example, in E. dumosa there were increases in five acyclic sugar alcohols and four low-abundance carbohydrates that were unaffected by water stress in E. pauciflora. Re-watering increased osmotic potential and decreased total osmotically active solutes in E. pauciflora, whereas in E. dumosa re-watering led to further decreases in osmotic potential and increases in total osmotically active solutes. This experiment has added several extra dimensions to previous targeted analyses of water stress responses in Eucalyptus, and highlights that even species that are closely related (e.g. congeners) may respond differently to water stress and re-watering

Mass spectrometric and capillary electrophoretic investigation of the enzymatic degradation of heparin-like glycosaminoglycans

Difficulties in determining composition and sequence of glycosaminoglycans, such as those related to heparin, have limited the investigation of these biologically important molecules. Here, we report methodology, based on matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization MS and capillary electrophoresis, to follow the time course of the enzymatic degradation of heparin-like glycosaminoglycans through the intermediate stages to the end products. MS allows the determination of the molecular weights of the sulfated carbohydrate intermediates and their approximate relative abundances at different time points of the experiment. Capillary electrophoresis subsequently is used to follow more accurately the abundance of the components and also to measure sulfated disaccharides for which MS is not well applicable. For those substrates that produce identical or isomeric intermediates, the reducing end of the carbohydrate chain was converted to the semicarbazone. This conversion increases the molecular weight of all products retaining the reducing terminus by the “mass tag” (in this case 56 Da) and thus distinguishes them from other products. A few picomoles of heparin-derived, sulfated hexa- to decasaccharides of known structure were subjected to heparinase I digestion and analyzed. The results indicate that the enzyme acts primarily exolytically and in a processive mode. The methodology described should be equally useful for other enzymes, including those modified by site-directed mutagenesis, and may lead to the development of an approach to the sequencing of complex glycosaminoglycans.

Avaliação de microtécnicas de extração para análise de lamotrigina em plasma de pacientes epilépticos por eletroforese capilar

A lamotrigina (LTG) é um fármaco pertencente à classe das feniltriazinas utilizado no tratamento de crises epilépticas generalizadas e focais e no tratamento adjunto da epilepsia refratária. Devido à alta variabilidade interindividual, às interações medicamentosas e aos efeitos adversos apresentados durante a administração da LTG, a monitorização terapêutica nos pacientes que fazem uso deste fármaco é necessária para ajuste de dose individual e evitar os efeitos adversos. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi a avaliação de duas técnicas de microextração: a microextração em fase líquida com fibras ocas (HF-LPME) e a microextração líquido-líquido dispersiva (DLLME) para análise da lamotrigina em amostras de plasma de pacientes epilépticos. Primeiramente foram definidas as condições eletroforéticas: foi utilizado um capilar de sílica fundida de 75 ?m de diâmetro interno e 50 cm de comprimento efetivo. O eletrólito de corrida (BGE) foi composto por ácido 2-morfolinoetanosulfônico (MES), na concentração de 130 mmol L-1 e pH 5,0. As análises foram realizadas à temperatura de 20°C e tensão de 15 kV. A amostra foi injetada hidrodinamicamente (0,5 psi por 10 s) e a detecção foi feita em 214 nm. Nestas condições a LTG e o padrão interno (PI), lidocaína, puderam ser analisados em menos de 7 minutos. A HF-LPME foi avaliada no modo de 3 fases, usando 500 ?L de plasma e 3,5 mL de solução fosfato de sódio 50 mmol L-1 pH 9,0 como fase doadora. O solvente utilizado para impregnar a fibra foi o 1-octanol. Como fase aceptora foram utilizados 60 ?L de solução de ácido clorídrico pH 4,0. Para avaliação da DLLME, foi necessária uma etapa de pré-tratamento da amostra (500 ?L de plasma) com 1 mL de acetonitrila. Após isto, 1,3 mL do sobrenadante foram adicionados a 4 mL de solução fosfato de sódio 50 mmol L-1 pH 9,0 e 120 ?L de clorofórmio (solvente extrator) foram injetados nesta amostra aquosa e 165 ?L de fase sedimentada foram recuperados. As características de desempenho analítico para ambos os métodos foram avaliadas, sendo obtida linearidade na faixa de concentração plasmática de 1-20 ?g/mL e limite inferior de quantificação (LIQ) de 1 ?g mL-1. Os ensaios de precisão e exatidão apresentaram valores de acordo com os guias oficiais. Além disso, os métodos foram seletivos, não apresentaram efeito residual e as amostras foram estáveis. Os valores de recuperação foram de 54,3 e 23% para HF-LPME e DLLME, respectivamente. Os métodos validados foram aplicados com sucesso em amostras de plasma de pacientes epilépticos em tratamento com a LTG. Além disso, as duas técnicas foram comparadas e a HF-LPME apresentou vantagens em relação à DLLME, mostrando ser uma técnica promissora para análise de matrizes complexas, com reduzido consumo de solvente orgânico e possibilidade de automação.

Improved estimation of postmortem interval with Cardiac Troponin T and improved analytical methods

Accurate knowledge of the time since death, or postmortem interval (PMI), has enormous legal, criminological, and psychological impact. In this study, an investigation was made to determine whether the relationship between the degradation of the human cardiac structure protein Cardiac Troponin T and PMI could be used as an indicator of time since death, thus providing a rapid, high resolution, sensitive, and automated methodology for the determination of PMI. ^ The use of Cardiac Troponin T (cTnT), a protein found in heart tissue, as a selective marker for cardiac muscle damage has shown great promise in the determination of PMI. An optimized conventional immunoassay method was developed to quantify intact and fragmented cTnT. A small sample of cardiac tissue, which is less affected than other tissues by external factors, was taken, homogenized, extracted with magnetic microparticles, separated by SDS-PAGE, and visualized with Western blot by probing with monoclonal antibody against cTnT. This step was followed by labeling and available scanners. This conventional immunoassay provides a proper detection and quantitation of cTnT protein in cardiac tissue as a complex matrix; however, this method does not provide the analyst with immediate results. Therefore, a competitive separation method using capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence (CE-LIF) was developed to study the interaction between human cTnT protein and monoclonal anti-TroponinT antibody. ^ Analysis of the results revealed a linear relationship between the percent of degraded cTnT and the log of the PMI, indicating that intact cTnT could be detected in human heart tissue up to 10 days postmortem at room temperature and beyond two weeks at 4C. The data presented demonstrates that this technique can provide an extended time range during which PMI can be more accurately estimated as compared to currently used methods. The data demonstrates that this technique represents a major advance in time of death determination through a fast and reliable, semi-quantitative measurement of a biochemical marker from an organ protected from outside factors. ^

A novel CE microchip with micro pillars column & double-L injection design for Capacitance Coupled Contactless Conductivity detection technology

This novel capillary electrophoresis microchip, or also known as μTAS (micro total analysis system) was designed to separate complex aqueous based compounds, similar to commercial CE & microchip (capillary electrophoresis) systems, but more compact. This system can be potentially used for mobile/portable chemical analysis equipment. Un-doped silicon wafer & ultra-thin borofloat glass (Pyrex) wafers have been used to fabricate the device. Double-L injection feature, micro pillars column, bypass separation channel & hybrid- referenced C4D electrodes were designed to achieve a high SNR (signal to noise ratio), easy- separation, for a durable and reusable μTAS for CE use.

The mechanism of maturation of insulin-like growth factor-1

This study, to elucidate the role of des(1-3)IGF-I in the maturation of IGF-I,used two strategies. The first was to detect the presence of enzymes in tissues, which would act on IGF-I to produce des(1-3)IGF-I, and the second was to detect the potential products of such enzymic activity, namely Gly-Pro-Glu(GPE), Gly-Pro(GP) and des(l- 3)IGF-I. No neutral tripeptidyl peptidase (TPP II), which would release the tripeptide GPE from IGF-I, was detected in brain, urine nor in red or white blood cells. The TPPlike activity which was detected, was attributed to a combined action of a dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP N) and an aminopeptidase (AP A). A true TPP II was, however, detected in platelets. Two purified TPP II enzymes were investigated but they did not release GPE from IGF-I under a variety of conditions. Consequently, TPP II seemed unlikely to participate in the formation of des(1-3)IGF-I. In contrast, an acidic tripeptidyl peptidase activity (TPP I) was detected in brain and colostrum, the former with a pH optimum of 4.5 and the latter 3.8. It seems likely that such an enzyme would participate in the formation of des( 1-3 )IGF-I in these tissues in vitro, ie. that des(1-3)IGF-I may have been produced as an artifact in the isolation of IGF-I from brain and colostrum in acidic conditions. This contrasts with suggestions of an in vivo role for des(1-3)IGF-I, as reported by others. The activity of a dipeptidyl peptidase N (DPP N) from urine, which should release the dipeptide GP from IGF-I, was assessed under a variety of conditions and with a variety of additives and potential enzyme stimulants, but there was no release of GP. The DPP N also exhibited a transferase activity with synthetic substrates in the presence of dipeptides, at lower concentrations than previously reported for other acceptors or other proteolytic enzymes. In addition, a low concentration of a product,possibly the tetrapeptide Gly-Pro-Gly-Leu, was detected with the action of the enzyme on IGF-I in the presence of the dipeptide Gly-Leu. As part of attempts to detect tissue production of des(1-3)IGF-I, a monoclonal antibody (MAb ), directed towards the GPE- end ofiGF-I was produced by immunisation with a 10-mer covalently attached to a carrier protein. By the use of indirect ELISA and inhibitor studies, the MAb was shown to selectively recognise peptides with anNterminal GPE- sequence, and applied to the indirect detection of des(1-3)IGF-I. The concentration of GPE in brain, measured by mass spectrometry ( MS), was low, and the concentration of total IGF-I (measured by ELISA with a commercial polyclonal antibody [P Ab]) was 40 times higher at 50 nmol/kg. This also, was not consistent with the action of a tripeptidyl peptidase in brain that converted all IGF-I to des(1-3)IGF-I plus GPE. Contrasting ELISA results, using the MAb prepared in this study, suggest an even higher concentration of intact IGF-I of 150 nmollkg. This would argue against the presence of any des( 1-3 )IGF-I in brain, but in turn, this indicates either the presence of other substances containing a GPE amino-terminus or other cross reacting epitope. Although the results of the specificity studies reported in Chapter 5 would make this latter possibility seem unlikely, it cannot be completely excluded. No GP was detected in brain by MS. No GPE was detected in colostrum by capillary electrophoresis (CE) but the interference from extraneous substances reduced the detectability of GPE by CE and this approach would require further, prior, purification and concentration steps. A molecule, with a migration time equal to that of the peptide GP, was detected in colostrum by CE, but the concentration (~ 10 11mo/L) was much higher than the IGF-I concentration measured by radio-immunoassay using a PAb (80 nmol/L) or using a Mab (300-400 nmolL). A DPP IV enzyme was detected in colostrum and this could account for the GP, derived from substrates other than IGF-1. Based on the differential results of the two antibody assays, there was no indication of the presence of des(1-3)IGF-I in brain or colostrum. In the absence of any enzyme activity directed towards the amino terminus of IGF-I and the absence any potential products, IGF-I, therefore, does not appear to "mature" via des(1-3)IGF-I in the brain, nor in the neutral colostrum. In spite of these results which indicate the absence of an enzymic attack on IGF-I and the absence of the expected products in tissues, the possibility that the conversion of IGF-I may occur in neutral conditions in limited amounts, cannot be ruled out. It remains possible that in the extracellular environment of the membrane, a complex interaction of IGF-I, binding protein, aminopeptidase(s) and receptor, produces des(1- 3)IGF-I as a transient product which is bound to the receptor and internalised.

Gold nanoparticles modified electrodes for biosensors

Biomolecules are chemical compounds found in living organisms which are the building blocks of life and perform important functions. Fluctuation from the normal concentration of these biomolecules in living system leads to several disorders. Thus the exact determination of them in human fluids is essential in the clinical point of view. High performance liquid chromatography, flow injection analysis, capillary electrophoresis, fluorimetry, spectrophotometry, electrochemical and chemiluminescence techniques were usually used for the determination of biologically important molecules. Among these techniques, electrochemical determination of biomolecules has several advantages over other methods viz., simplicity, selectivity and sensitivity. In the past two decades, electrodes modified with polymer films, self-assembled monolayers containing different functional groups and carbon paste have been used as electrochemical sensors. But in recent years, nanomaterials based electrochemical sensors play an important role in the improvement of public health because of its rapid detection, high sensitivity and specificity in clinical diagnostics. To date gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have received arousing attention mainly due to their fascinating electronic and optical properties as a consequence of their reduced dimensions. These unique properties of AuNPs make them as an ideal candidate for the immobilization of enzymes for biosensing. Further, the electrochemical properties of AuNPs reveal that they exhibit interesting properties by enhancing the electrode conductivity, facilitating electron transfer and improving the detection limit of biomolecules. In this chapter, we summarized the different strategies used for the attachment of AuNPs on electrode surfaces and highlighted the electrochemical determination of glucose, ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA) and dopamine derivatives using the AuNPs modified electrodes.