Rem : a los dos lados del espejo = (Rem at both sides of the mirror)

Cuando se trata de Rem Koolhaas, su espejo no refleja una sola imagen sino múltiples, es un prisma poliédrico. Su espejo nos devuelve el Rem mediático, el intelectual, el conceptualizador, el constructor, el analista, el periodista, el actor... En el caso de esta investigación, fijamos el punto de mira en el Rem COMUNICADOR. “Rem a los dos lados del espejo” se enmarca en una investigación sobre los medios de comunicación de arquitectura, su reflejo en la producción arquitectónica y viceversa. Se trata de llegar a discernir si comunicación y producción arquitectónica colisionan y confluyen en el caso de grandes comunicadores como Rem Koolhaas, si el mensaje y el medio transmisor adquieren las mismas cualidades. Centrándose en la figura de Rem Koolhaas, la tesis aborda la evolución de su faceta comunicativa y las transformaciones sucesivas en el campo de la comunicación arquitectónica, en paralelo a su evolución conceptual a lo largo de su trayectoria. La investigación, por tanto, no se centra tanto en su componente teórica o en la práctica arquitectónica de OMA, sino en la exposición de su producción al mundo, especialmente a través de sus ensayos y libros. “Delirious New York” y “SMLXL” son un reflejo del momento conceptual en que se inscriben, y contienen mucha información sobre los referentes gráficos que irremediablemente han influido en su composición. Especialmente, la aparición de “SMLXL” supuso un revulsivo para el mundo de la comunicación arquitectónica, porque puso el foco sobre la importancia de dejar atrás un discurso narrativo linea y unifocal, para afrontar la comunicación barajando múltiples variables, y aproximaciones, en un proceso similar al desarrollo de un proyecto de arquitectura. Presenta un diseño muy novedoso y una edición extremadamente cuidada, que atiende a parámetros mucho más ambiciosos que los meramente narrativos. Profundiza en la necesidad de una temática global, planteando cuál es la aproximación más apropiada para cada uno de los proyectos que describe, transmitiendo al lector una percepción más allá de lo estrictamente visual, más próximo a lo sensorial. Además, su enorme repercusión a nivel internacional y el gran interés que despertó (no solamente entre los arquitectos, sino también entre diseñadores gráficos, publicistas, personas provenientes de todo tipo de tendencias artísticas y público en general), provocó la globalización del fenómeno de las publicaciones arquitectónicas y puso de manifiesto la importancia de la comunicación como una disciplina en sí misma, dentro de la producción arquitectónica en la era actual. A pesar de la importancia de “SMLXL” a todos los niveles, la presente tesis plantea que, donde realmente se culmina esa experiencia comunicativa, es en “Content”, al incluir nuevos parámetros relacionados con la fusión conceptual de continente y contenido. Es en esta publicación donde el objeto de la comunicación y la expresión de la misma se convierten en un único elemento, que se rige por leyes similares. En este caso, la ley fundamental es la aplicación hasta sus máximas consecuencias de la “cultura de la congestión”, tanto en el mensaje como en el medio, generando lo que hemos convenido en denominar “comunicación congestiva”. Esta concepción deviene en que necesariamente se materialice como un producto efímero, desechable, casi virtual, porque responde a las condiciones de un momento muy concreto y específico y fuera de ese contexto pierde su significación.. La “cultura de la congestión” empieza a surgir en los planteamientos de Koolhaas en la Architectural Association School of Architecture de Londres, bajo la tutela de Elia Zenghelis. Posteriormente se desarrolla en su manifiesto retroactivo sobre Manhattan, “Delirious New York”, donde declara la guerra abierta al urbanismo del movimiento moderno y afirma que la ciudad realmente contemporánea es aquella que es fruto de un desarrollo no planificado, hiperdensa y posible gracias a los avances tecnológicos de su era. Finalmente comienza a materializarse en la Diploma Unit 9 de la AA, donde entra como profesor en 1975, dejando una huella indeleble en las generaciones posteriores de arquitectos que pasaron dicha unidad. Rem Koolhaas es ante todo un intelectual y por ello, todo el constructo teórico sobre la metrópolis comienza a reflejarse en su obra a través de OMA desde el comienzo de su producción. Podemos decir a grandes rasgos que su carrera está marcada por dos hitos históricos fundamentales que determinan tres etapas diferenciadas en su producción. En sus primeros años de profesión, Koolhaas sigue fascinado por la metrópolis urbana y la aplicación del método paranoico crítico a su producción arquitectónica. Es un arquitecto profundamente surrealista. Entiende este método como una estrategia de conocimiento y aproximación al mundo que le rodea: “dejar salir el inconsciente pero sostenerlo con las muletas de la racionalidad”. Pero lo que en realidad le interesa es su aplicación a la gran escala, el “Bigness”, y por ello, participa en proyectos muy ambiciosos de los que surgen conceptos que, más allá de resultar premiados o no, han dejado una huella ideológica en el devenir de la arquitectura. Entre estos proyectos, cabe destacar su propuesta para el Parque de la Villette o la Très Grande Bibliotèque de París. Sus proyectos de esta época destilan una gran carga conceptual, que devienen en unos interiores sorprendentes pero una apariencia exterior sobria o incluso podríamos decir "povera", por el uso de materiales efímeros, poco habituales en la macro-arquitectura hasta ese momento. Súbitamente, en 1997, explotó el denominado “Efecto Bilbao”, de la mano de Frank Gehry (1). El Museo Guggenheim de Bilbao, con su espectacularidad, sus formas pregnantes e imposibles, impacta al mundo. Nace la era de la “Arquitectura del Espectáculo”; la transformación de la ciudad a través de ICONOS que actúen como nodos de atracción y concentración en torno a los cuales supuestamente se revitaliza la actividad económica, cultural y sociopolítica de la ciudad, como si a través de un único gesto se pudieran regenerar todos los tejidos internos de la urbe. Rem Koolhaas comprende rápidamente que la aproximación a la ciudad ha cambiado y, sobre todo, el mercado. En el mundo de la globalización, la única manera de llegar a materializar el “Bigness”, es encerrando sus ejercicios intelectuales en formas pregnantes, bellas, icónicas, espectaculares. Koolhaas encuentra su marca personal en la estética “Stealth”, proveniente de los aviones de combate facetados para evitar los radares, elaborados en los años 80. De esta época surgen proyectos como la Casa da Música de Oporto o la Biblioteca de Seattle; ambos edificios son iconos facetados, de belleza pregnante, que dejan una huella indeleble en la ciudad y provocan, al igual que el Guggenheim, un cierto efecto de recuperación y revitalización en el entorno en que se asientan, al menos de manera temporal. En cualquier caso, Koolhaas nunca abandona los ejercicios meramente teóricos, pero segrega su actividad en dos: OMA produce aquello que tiene vocación de ser construido y se rige por los parámetros del mercado global y AMO, la otra cara del espejo de Rem, aplica el pensamiento arquitectónico a campos no explorados, sin la dependencia de agentes externos, pudiendo permitirse ser un laboratorio puramente experimental. En este escenario, llega el 11 de septiembre de 2001 y el ataque a las Torres Gemelas de Nueva York tiene efectos devastadores a todos los niveles, significando, en un período de tiempo sorprendentemente corto, un cambio en el orden mundial. Rem Koolhaas da entonces un giro de 180 grados, dirige su mirada hacia China, donde entiende que sus aportaciones tienen un beneficio social más directo que en occidente. (2) Para presentar al mundo su nuevo cambio de rumbo y la creación del “Think Tank” AMO, plantea una gran exposición en la NeueGallerie de Berlín bajo el título de “Content”, experiencia paralela a la edición del libro con el mismo título, que inicialmente nace como “catálogo de la exposición, pero que internamente siempre se concibió como el documento más trascendente en el estudio desde “SMLXL”. Sin embargo, en muchos aspectos se trata de su opuesto: una publicación con formato revista, de tapa blanda, con paginado muy fino, formato de "folleto de supermercado" y contenido hiperdenso. Es un experimento efímero, fugaz, ligero, barato, de “usar y tirar”. De hecho, está fuera de stock, ya no se edita. Probablemente Rem Koolhaas desaprobaría que se hiciera una investigación que pusiera el foco sobre el mismo, porque diez años después de su publicación seguramente opine que su vigencia ha caducado. Sin embargo, muestra con una claridad meridiana el estado conceptual y vital de OMA en el momento de su publicación y representa, además un verdadero hito en la comunicación arquitectónica, un punto de no retorno, el máximo exponente de lo que hemos denominado “comunicación congestiva”. La presente tesis plantea que “Content” contiene la esencia de la mayor aportación de Rem Koolhaas al mundo de la arquitectura: la transformación profunda y definitiva de la comunicación arquitectónica mediante la convergencia del estado conceptual y la transmisión del mismo. Su legado arquitectónico y conceptual ha marcado a todas las generaciones posteriores de manera indeleble. Sus ensayos, sus teorías, sus proyectos y sus edificaciones ya pertenecen a la historia de la arquitectura, sin ninguna duda. Pero es su revisión del concepto de la comunicación en arquitectura lo que ha tenido y tendrá un reflejo inmediato en las generaciones futuras, no solamente en la comunicación sino en su arquitectura, a través de un intercambio biyectivo. El planteamiento a futuro sería determinar qué sucede tras “Content”, tras la hiperdensidad máxima, tras la cultura de la congestión visual; qué es lo que propone Koolhaas y qué se va a plantear también en el mundo de la comunicación arquitectónica. Para ello, estudiaremos en profundidad sus últimos proyectos relacionados con la comunicación, como su propuesta para la Biennale de Arquitectura de Venecia de 2014, su intensa investigación sobre el “Metabolismo” en “Project Japan: Metabolism Talks...”, o la dirección de sus últimos planteamientos territoriales. En los últimos tiempos Rem Koolhaas habla de “Preservación”, de “Sobriedad”, de “Esencialismo”, de “Performance”... El autor intelectual de la cultura de la congestión habla ahora de la “low density”...como no podía ser de otra manera en la otra cara del espejo. En definitiva, el color blanco como suma de todos los colores, todas las longitudes de onda del espectro visible recibidas al tiempo. ABSTRACT When talking about Rem Koolhaas, the mirror does not only reflect one but numerous images: it is nothing but a polyhedral prism. His mirror gives us the image of Rem the media celebrity, the intellectual, the conceptualizer, the builder, the analyst, the journalist, the actor... This research sets the spotlight on Rem the COMMUNICATOR. "Rem on both sides of the mirror" belongs to a research on architectural media, its influence on the architectural production and vice versa. It is aimed at getting to discern whether communication and architectural production collide and converge in the case of great communicators such as Rem Koolhaas, and whether the message and transmission media acquire the same features. Focusing on the figure of Rem Koolhaas, this thesis addresses the evolution of his communicative facet and the successive transformations in the field of architectural communication, parallel to the conceptual evolution he underwent throughout his career. Therefore, this research is not so much focused on his theoretical component or on the OMA’s architectural practice, but on the exhibition of his production to the world, especially through his essays and books. "Delirious New York" and "SMLXL" hold up a mirror to the conceptual moment they are part of, and contain a great deal of information about the graphic references that have inevitably influenced his work. Specially, the launch of "SMLXL" was a salutary shock for the architectural communication world, since it set the spotlight on the importance of leaving a linear and unifocal narrative behind in order to face communication considering multiple variables and approaches, based on a process similar to the development of an architectural project. It offers a very innovative design and an extremely careful editing, which deals with parameters much more ambitious than those merely narrative. It explores the need for a global subject and suggests the most appropriate approach for each of the projects described, giving the reader a closer insight to the sensory that goes beyond what’s strictly visual. In addition, its huge international impact and the great interest shown, not only by architects but also by graphic designers, publishers, people from all kinds of artistic trends and the general public, led to the globalisation of the architectural publications phenomenon and brought the importance of communication as a discipline in itself, within the architectural production in the age at hand, to light. Despite the importance of "SMLXL" at all levels, this thesis suggests that the communication experience really culminates in "Content", for it includes new conceptual parameters associated with the container-content conceptual fusion. It is in this book where the purpose of communication and the expression of such become a single element, ruled by similar laws. In this particular case, the fundamental law is to implement the "culture of congestion" to its extreme consequences in both the message and the media, leading to what we have agreed to refer to as "congestive communication”. This concept leads to its inevitable materialisation into an ephemeral, disposable, almost virtual product, because it meets the conditions of a very concrete and specific time, and outside that context it loses its significance. The "culture of congestion" emerged in Koolhaas’ approaches under the guidance of Elia Zenghelis, in the Architectural Association School of Architecture of London. Subsequently, his retroactive manifesto on Manhattan, "Delirious New York" developed it, waging an all-out war against the modern movement urbanism and maintaining that the really contemporary cities are those hyperdense ones that rise as a result of an unplanned development and thanks to the typical technological advances of their time. Finally it began to materialise in the Diploma Unit 9 of the AA, in which he started lecturing in 1975, leaving an indelible mark on subsequent generations of architects who passed that unit. First and foremost, Rem Koolhaas is an intellectual and, therefore, all the theoretical construct in the metropolis began to be reflected in his work through OMA since the beginnings of his production. Broadly speaking, we can say that his career is influenced by two essential historic events, which determine three different stages in his production. In the early years of his career, Koolhaas was still fascinated by the urban metropolis and the implementation of the paranoiac-critical method to his architectural production. He was then a deeply surreal architect. He understood this method as a knowledge strategy and an approach to the world around him: "let the subconscious out but hold it with the crutches of reasonableness”. However, he was actually interested in its implementation on a broad scale, the "Bigness", and therefore, he took part in ambitious projects that led to the accrual of concepts that, beyond being rewarded, left an ideological impression on the evolution of architecture. These projects included his proposal for the Parc de la Villette or the Très Grande Bibliotèque in Paris. The projects he carried out during this period showed a great conceptual background, which evolved into surprising interiors but a sober, or even "povera", exterior appearance, thanks to the use of ephemeral materials that were atypical in the macro-architecture field until that moment. Suddenly, in 1997, the so-called "Bilbao effect" boomed thanks to Frank Gehry (1). The Guggenheim Museum of Bilbao amazed the world with its spectacular nature and its pregnant and impossible shapes. It was the beginning of the era of “The architecture of spectacle”: the transformation of the city through ICONS that would act as nodes of attraction and gathering, around which the economic, cultural and socio-political activity of the city was supposed to be revitalized, as if through a single gesture all internal tissues of the city could be rebuilt. Rem Koolhaas quickly realized that the approach to the city, and especially to the global market, had changed. In the world of globalisation, the only way to get to materialise such "Bigness" was by keeping his intellectual exercises in pregnant, beautiful, iconic and spectacular shapes. Koolhaas found his personal brand in the Stealth aesthetic, resulting from the eighties American combat aircrafts whose shape was faceted in order to avoid radars. Projects such as the Casa da Música in Porto or the Seattle Library date from this period; both buildings are faceted icons of pregnant beauty that left an indelible mark on the city and caused, like the Guggenheim, some degree of recovery and revitalization on the environment in which they were based, at least temporarily. In any case, Koolhaas never gave the merely theoretical exercises up, but he segregated his work in two: OMA produced what was destined to be built and ruled by the parameters of the global market and AMO, Rem’s other side of the mirror, applied the architectural thought in unexplored fields, notwithstanding external agents and being able to work as a purely experimental laboratory. In light of this backdrop, September 11th 2001 came and the attacks on the Twin Towers in New York had devastating effects at all levels, leading to a change in the world order, in a surprisingly short period of time. Rem Koolhaas made a 180° turn directing his vision towards China, where he believed his contributions would have a more direct social benefit than in the Western world. (2) In order to introduce his new course of direction and the creation of the AMO "Think Tank", he planned a major exhibition in the Neue Nationalgalerie of Berlin under the title "Content", in parallel with edition of the book with the same title, which was at first the "exhibition catalog” but, deep down, was always conceived as the most important document of the Office since "SMLXL". However, in many ways it was just the opposite: a publication characterised by its magazine format, soft cover, very fine paging, "supermarket brochure" form and hyperdense content. It was an ephemeral, brief, light, cheap and "disposable" experiment. In fact, it is currently out of stock and out of print. Rem Koolhaas would probably disapprove of a research that sets the spotlight on him, for he would probably say that his validity has expired given that it has been ten years since its publication. However, it shows OMA’s conceptual and vital status at the time of its publication with crystalline clarity and it is also a true milestone in architectural communication. A point of no return. The epitome of the so-called "congestive communication ". This thesis suggests that "Content" contains the essence of Rem Koolhaas’ greatest contribution to the world of architecture: the deep and definitive transformation of architectural communication through the convergence of the conceptual state and the transmission thereof. His architectural and conceptual legacy has left an indelible mark on all subsequent generations. There is no doubt his essays, theories, projects and buildings already belong to the history of architecture. But it is his review on the concept of communication in architecture that has had and shall have an immediate influence on future generations, not only in their communication but also in their architecture, through a bijective exchange. Future approaches should try to determine what happens after "Content", after the maximum hyperdensity, after the visual culture of congestion; what shall Koolhaas suggest as well as what shall happen in the world of architectural communication. To this end, we shall study his latest communication-related projects, such as the design of the Venetian Architecture Biennale in 2014, his intensive research on the "Metabolism" in "Project Japan: Metabolism Talks ...", or the course of his latest territorial approaches in depth. Most recently, Rem Koolhaas has talked about "Preservation", "Sobriety" of "Essentialism", "Performance", etc. The mastermind of the culture of congestion now speaks of the "low density"... as it could not be otherwise, on the other side of the mirror. Summarizing, the white color as the sum of all colors; all wavelengths of the visible spectrum received at the same time.

La opción radical : viaje a través de Superstudio

Entre 1966 y 1967 un pequeño grupo de jóvenes arquitectos recién titulados en la Facultad de Arquitectura de Florencia escenifican en dos actos programados en las ciudades de Pistoia y Módenala exposición Superarchitettura, con la que sin saberlo inauguran un corto pero intenso periodo de experimentación arquitectónica que convulsionaría Italia durante los 10 años posteriores, dinamitados por multitud de propuestas que darán lugar a la última arquitectura con aspiraciones socio-políticas responsable de un vibrante legado teórico que proclamaba la vuelta a las raíces olvidadas de la profesión y que se mostraba más preocupada por reflexionar sobre sus fundamentos que por perpetuar la práctica de un oficio ahora puesto en crisis. Ambos eventos suponen también el nacimiento simultáneo de Superstudio y Archizoom, dos de los colectivos más influyentes de la arquitectura experimental italiana de estos años, convertidos en protagonistas de un agitado periodo de transición en el que una generación estaba dando paso a la siguiente a través de la sustitución de los principios doctrinarios recibidos de la modernidad por una jugosa incertidumbre desmitificadora ligada a una nueva realidad económica, política y social que marcaría los inicios de la posmodernidad. La experiencia italiana surge aprovechando la efervescencia de un fenómeno que posteriormente algunos críticos etiquetaron como Arquitectura Radical con la intención de unificar el trabajo de un heterogéneo y atomizado grupo de arquitectos fundamentalmente europeos – individualmente comprometidos con el replanteamiento total de la definición y objetivos de la disciplina, al tiempo que participaban en una particular cruzada existencial mediante la que pretendían, si no cambiar el mundo, al menos romper la dinámica estéril de la arquitectura profesional y tecnológica heredada. La presente tesis fomenta la recuperación interesada de este breve momento radical como un ambicioso proyecto de modernización inacabado, pero no solo para analizar las causas de su precipitado final, sino sobre todo para mostrar las razones de su gran éxito internacional, convirtiendo para ello el trabajo de Superstudio, ejemplo paradigmático de la actitud crítica compartida por el resto de operadores contemporáneos, en el catalizador adecuado a partir del cual interpretar y extrapolar su legado con el fin de narrar el cambio trascendental que este episodio supuso para la práctica arquitectónica, alejándola del diseño de edificios y centrándola en la adopción y aplicación de multitud de actividades no tectónicas en un intento por separarse de lo que era percibido como una disciplina corrupta. A lo largo de su corta carrera en común, los seis miembros de Superstudio sustituyeron la construcción convencional por la explotación intensiva de medios alternativos desde el diseño de mobiliario e iluminación y algunos experimentos en torno a la “arquitectura eléctrica”, hasta la expansión mediática de su trabajo a través de revistas, películas, exposiciones y conferencias contribuyendo así a una provocativa destrucción y posterior expansión de los límites dentro de los que hasta ese momento se había mantenido cómodamente instalada la arquitectura. Esta investigación descubre la trascendencia de considerar aquello que ocupó gran parte de la actividad de Superstudio y de sus colegas radicales (muebles, revistas, instalaciones, películas, labor teórica y docente, etc.) como nuevas formas de arquitectura con las que construir un nuevo lenguaje crítico, en un intento por contribuir a renovar y reforzar la relevancia y responsabilidad social de una profesión llamada a expandirse más allá de lo construido para nutrirse e interactuar con todos los ámbitos de nuestro entorno diario. ABSTRACT Between 1966 and 1967 a small group of newly qualified young architects from the Faculty of Architecture of Florence staged in two events planned in the cities of Pistoia and Modena the Superarchitettura exhibition, with which unwittingly inaugurated a short but intense period of architectural experimentation that convulse Italy during the following 10 years, blown up by a multitude of proposals that will result in the latest architecture with socio political aspirations responsible for a vibrant theoretical legacy proclaiming a return to forgotten roots of the profession and that was more concerned with reflect on its fundamentals than perpetuate the practice of a profession now put into crisis. Both events also involve the simultaneous birth of Superstudio and Archizoom, two of the most influential groups of Italian experimental architecture of these years, turned into protagonists of an hectic period of transition in which a generation was giving way to the next through replacing the received doctrinal principles of modernity by a juicy demystifying uncertainty linked to a new reality economic, political and social that would mark the beginning of postmodernism. The Italian experience arises taking advantage of the commotion of a phenomenon that later some critics labeled as Radical Architecture with the intention of unifying the work of a diverse and fragmented group of architects mainly European individually committed to the total rethinking of the definition and objectives of the discipline, while participating in a particular existential crusade with which they sought to, if not change the world, at least break out of the sterile dynamic of professional and technological architecture inherited. This doctoral thesis promotes an interested recovery of in this short radical time as an ambitious modernization project unfinished, but not only to analyze the causes of its precipitous end, but above all to show the reasons for it’s international success, turning the work of Superstudio, a paradigmatic example of the critical attitude shared by the rest of contemporary operators, into the suitable catalyst from which to interpret and extrapolate it’s legacy in order to recount the significant change that this episode marked for architectural practice, moving it away from building and focusing it on the adoption and implementation of many nonLtectonic activities in an attempt to separate from what was perceived as a corrupt discipline. Throughout their short career in common, the six members of Superstudio replaced conventional construction by intensive exploitation of alternative means L from furniture and lighting design and some experiments around the "electric architecture", to the media expansion of their work through magazines, films, exhibitions and lectures thus contributing to a provocative destruction and subsequent expansion of the limits within which architecture had remained ensconced until then. This dissertation finds out the importance of considering what occupied much of the activity of Superstudio and their radical colleagues (furniture, magazines, installations, films, theoretical and educational work, etc.) as new forms of architecture that build a new critical language, in an attempt to help renew and reinforce the relevance and social responsibility of a profession call to expand beyond the built to nourish and interact with all areas of our everyday environment.

La construcción del espacio litoral : el caso de la costa de Cartagena

El litoral ha constituido a lo largo de la historia una importante fuente de recursos económicos además de un punto estratégico para la defensa del territorio. El comercio, la pesca o la industria de la sal han propiciado la formación de poblaciones y ciudades al borde del mar. La costa funcionó como un ámbito defensivo, peligroso e insalubre durante siglos donde el mar modulaba el frente costero sin grandes interacciones con un entorno prácticamente deshabitado. A mediados del siglo XIX, las innovaciones técnicas y la pacificación definitiva del Mediterráneo permiten poner en valor sus características naturales y de oportunidad. Sin perder del todo su valor defensivo, el litoral resurge como recurso productivo y como lugar de ocio y disfrute de la población. El valor estratégico de la costa quedará también reflejado en el marco normativo. El derecho civil moderno recuperará el concepto de Dominio público Marítimo Terrestre a través de la Ley de Aguas de 1866 que regulará también los usos y las limitaciones en la propiedad privada litoral. Desde ese momento, las transformaciones económicas, sociales, jurídicas y ambientales van a provocar un cambio significativo en la relación entre la sociedad y la costa que dará paso a la construcción del espacio litoral que hemos heredado. Desde la triple perspectiva del litoral como sistema físico ambiental, sistema económico, productivo y cultural, y sistema administrativo y legal, el principal objetivo de la tesis será reconstruir el proceso de transformación del litoral consecuencia de la evolución en la forma de producción del espacio, de área defensiva a recurso productivo, y desde mediados del siglo XIX hasta principios del siglo XXI. Sin embargo, la construcción del litoral no ha sido homogénea ni constante a lo largo del tiempo. Ha estado sujeta a los distintos vaivenes económicos y sociales pero también a los cambios en el modelo territorial definido por el marco legal vigente, así como a los reajustes del propio sistema físico. Como instrumento sociopolítico, el marco legal regula las presiones del sistema económico sobre el medio, apostando por una visión frente a otra, y posibilitando el grado de transformación final. Así, el conocimiento sobre el territorio en el que se interviene y la definición del modelo de litoral por parte de los poderes públicos irán configurando el espacio físico, económico y social desarrollado en la costa. Para la reconstrucción del proceso de construcción del litoral, la tesis define cuatro fases diferentes y aplica las hipótesis y la metodología a la costa de Cartagena. Se presenta gráficamente la evolución en los tres sistemas en cada una de las fases, y se recompone el relato histórico a través de los hitos más relevantes para el proceso. En cada una de las fases, el nuevo modelo intentará dar respuesta a todo aquello que no funcionó o se quedó a medias en el periodo anterior. Las crisis económicas provocan la ralentización de la actividad productiva y, consecuentemente, de las transformaciones en el territorio. Servirán para establecer, en principio, un cambio de paradigma en la lectura y gestión del litoral que acabará traduciéndose en un nuevo texto legislativo en materia de costas (1969, 1988 y 2013). La reforma de la normativa responde a una nueva forma de entender, ordenar, gestionar e intervenir en el territorio, donde se modulan las pautas pero también la intensidad en la intervención. Pero nace condicionada por el litoral heredado: los derechos generados durante la vigencia del marco legal anterior; el modelo económico y sus presiones y expectativas sobre el litoral; y el medio físico en el que se acumulan los procesos de degradación no resueltos y los nuevos riesgos. Así, las conclusiones de la tesis ponen de manifiesto la necesidad de una visión compleja e integral sobre el litoral, en la que el urbanismo y la ordenación del territorio serán fundamentales para afrontar los nuevos retos en su construcción a futuro. ABSTRACT The littoral has been throughout history an important source of economic resources and a strategic point for the defense of territory. Trade, fishing or salt industry have led to the formation of towns and cities on the edge of the sea. The coast served as a defensive, dangerous and unhealthy place where the sea modulated for centuries the waterfront without major interactions with a virtually uninhabited environment. In the mid-nineteenth century, technical innovations and the final pacification of the Mediterranean allowed to value its natural features and opportunities. Without entirely losing its defensive value, the coast emerges as a productive resource and as a place of leisure and enjoyment of people. The strategic value of the coast will also be reflected in the legal framework. The concept of maritime-terrestrial public domain will be recovered by the modern civil law and the law of waters of 1866 governs the uses and limitations of private ownership of the coast. Since then, the economic, social, legal and environmental changes will to cause a significant change in the relationship between society and the coast that will give way to the construction of littoral space inherited. From the triple perspective of the littoral as a physical environmental system, an economic, productive and cultural system, and an administrative and legal system, the main objective of the thesis is to rebuild its process of transformation, as a result of the evolution in the way that space is produced, from defensive zone to productive resource, and from the middle of the nineteenth century until the beginning of the twenty-first century. However, the construction of the coast has not been uniform nor constant over time. It has been subject to different economic and social fluctuations and also to changes in the territorial model defined by the legal framework in force, as well as to readjustments of the physical system itself. As socio-political instrument, the legal framework regulates the pressure of the economic system on the environment, it bets on a vision over another and facilitates the final degree of transformation. Thus, the knowledge on the territory that is being intervened and the definition of the model of shoreline by public authorities will configure the physical, economic and social space developed on the coast. For the reconstruction of the littoral building process, the thesis defines four different phases and applies the hypothesis and methodology to the coast of Cartagena. It introduces graphically the evolution of the three systems in each of the phases and it recomposes the historical account through of the most important milestones for the process. In each phase, the new model will attempt to answer everything that did not work or was half in the previous period. Economic crises cause a slowdown in productive activity and, consequently, in the changes of territory. They serve to establish, in principle, a paradigm shift for reading and managing the littoral, eventually resulting in new legal texts on coasts matter (1969, 1988 and 2013). The reform of legislation responds to a new way for understanding, arranging, managing and intervening on the territory, where the guidelines and also the intervention intensity are modulated. But it is born conditioned by the inherited coast: the rights generated under previous legal framework; the economic model and its pressures and expectations on the littoral; and the physical environment which accumulates degradation processes unresolved and new risks. Thus, the thesis conclusions highlight the need for a complex and comprehensive view on the littoral, where urban planning and land-use planning will be key to meet the future challenges in its construction.

PARA UMA PAZ SEM FIM : Um estudo, sócio-político e teológico, da tipologia messiânica nas perícopes de Isaías 7,10-17 e 8,23-9,6.

O ato de ungir, do qual se origina o termo messias, era um costume dos povos do Antigo Oriente Médio e foi assimilado por Israel. O Antigo Testamento, porém, reinterpretou esta unção. Ele atribuiu ao rei, num primeiro momento, o título de ungido, maxiah;. Nesta perspectiva, o rei Davi foi aquele que deu origem à mentalidade messiânica em Israel. E a respeito da teologia messiânica, o profeta Isaías tornou-se um dos seus expoentes. Ele se dirige à classe alta de Jerusalém e propõe um Ungido de Javé em substituição ao rei da casa de Davi. Isto porque, o messianismo também se tornou um movimento de resistência frente a não observância da justiça e do direito, que culmina com a ausência da paz. Nesse sentido, Isaías apresenta também uma nova percepção do messianismo, a saber, uma ruptura com a casa de Davi (7,17). Este messias não estava sob os critérios humanos de um bom rei, forte e guerreiro, mas sob a direção do Espírito de Javé. Por isso, ele poderá ser um messias criança (7,14; 9,5). Esta dissertação tem, portanto, a finalidade de percorrer o caminho do surgimento do ungido, ou do ato de se ungir, até a concepção isaiânica de messias. Esse desenvolvimento mostrará, ao final do trabalho, a tipologia messiânica apresentada pelo profeta Isaías, a partir das perícopes de 7,10-17 e 8,23-9,6.(AU)

PARA UMA PAZ SEM FIM : Um estudo, sócio-político e teológico, da tipologia messiânica nas perícopes de Isaías 7,10-17 e 8,23-9,6.

O ato de ungir, do qual se origina o termo messias, era um costume dos povos do Antigo Oriente Médio e foi assimilado por Israel. O Antigo Testamento, porém, reinterpretou esta unção. Ele atribuiu ao rei, num primeiro momento, o título de ungido, maxiah;. Nesta perspectiva, o rei Davi foi aquele que deu origem à mentalidade messiânica em Israel. E a respeito da teologia messiânica, o profeta Isaías tornou-se um dos seus expoentes. Ele se dirige à classe alta de Jerusalém e propõe um Ungido de Javé em substituição ao rei da casa de Davi. Isto porque, o messianismo também se tornou um movimento de resistência frente a não observância da justiça e do direito, que culmina com a ausência da paz. Nesse sentido, Isaías apresenta também uma nova percepção do messianismo, a saber, uma ruptura com a casa de Davi (7,17). Este messias não estava sob os critérios humanos de um bom rei, forte e guerreiro, mas sob a direção do Espírito de Javé. Por isso, ele poderá ser um messias criança (7,14; 9,5). Esta dissertação tem, portanto, a finalidade de percorrer o caminho do surgimento do ungido, ou do ato de se ungir, até a concepção isaiânica de messias. Esse desenvolvimento mostrará, ao final do trabalho, a tipologia messiânica apresentada pelo profeta Isaías, a partir das perícopes de 7,10-17 e 8,23-9,6.(AU)

Dinâmicas proféticas no prólogo de Dêutero-Isaías: exegese de Isaías 40,1-11

As dinâmicas proféticas no prólogo de Dêutero-Isaías que delineiam grande parte das linhas da mensagem apresentada em todo o bloco de Isaías 40-55 como uma introdução, é via desta pesquisa. Estas dinâmicas contêm conceitos teológicos renovados, pertinentes, e que fortaleceram o ânimo dos exilados. Para isto, o profeta usou como modelo antigas memórias fundamentais do povo hebreu. Em especial no prólogo, destacam-se o êxodo do Egito e a peregrinação no deserto, que têm seu propósito em chamar os exilados à resistência ao assédio e incorporação babilônica. Tendo em vista que, entre sucumbir aos encantos da religião e cultura babilônica, ou continuar a firmar a fé em Javé esperando a mudança da sorte, estava o drama vivido pelos exilados. O povo precisava de respostas pertinentes às suas dúvidas e é neste sentido que surge a profecia de Dêutero-Isaías combatendo a crise com esperança e movimentando à fé antes resignada. Neste sentido, a história da salvação serve como apoio e garantia para o futuro de libertação e restauração. Quando o presente não era capaz de suscitar esperança de mudanças no futuro, o profeta buscou no passado, memórias capazes de suscitarem aos exilados o desejo de servir a Javé ao invés de Marduque. Por trás desta necessidade surge o conceito de que a história do povo é o caminho pelo qual Javé escolheu para manifestar-se. No prólogo é possível perceber, como, e, o que, o profeta utilizou para levar os judaítas exilados a sentir-se verdadeiramente o povo de Deus. Foi importante fazer com que buscassem sua identidade em suas experiências de libertação do passado para que pudessem ter esperança.

DINÂMICAS PROFÉTICAS NO PRÓLOGO DE DÊUTERO-ISAÍAS. Exegese de Isaías 40,1-11.

As dinâmicas proféticas no prólogo de Dêutero-Isaías que delineiam grande parte das linhas da mensagem apresentada em todo o bloco de Isaías 40-55 como uma introdução, é via desta pesquisa. Estas dinâmicas contêm conceitos teológicos renovados, pertinentes, e que fortaleceram o ânimo dos exilados. Para isto, o profeta usou como modelo antigas memórias fundamentais do povo hebreu. Em especial no prólogo, destacam-se o êxodo do Egito e a peregrinação no deserto, que têm seu propósito em chamar os exilados à resistência ao assédio e incorporação babilônica. Tendo em vista que, entre sucumbir aos encantos da religião e cultura babilônica, ou continuar a firmar a fé em Javé esperando a mudança da sorte, estava o drama vivido pelos exilados. O povo precisava de respostas pertinentes às suas dúvidas e é neste sentido que surge a profecia de Dêutero-Isaías combatendo a crise com esperança e movimentando à fé antes resignada. Neste sentido, a história da salvação serve como apoio e garantia para o futuro de libertação e restauração. Quando o presente não era capaz de suscitar esperança de mudanças no futuro, o profeta buscou no passado, memórias capazes de suscitarem aos exilados o desejo de servir a Javé ao invés de Marduque. Por trás desta necessidade surge o conceito de que a história do povo é o caminho pelo qual Javé escolheu para manifestar-se. No prólogo é possível perceber, como, e, o que, o profeta utilizou para levar os judaítas exilados a sentir-se verdadeiramente o povo de Deus. Foi importante fazer com que buscassem sua identidade em suas experiências de libertação do passado para que pudessem ter esperança.

The Politics of Re-(en)visioning: Contemporary British Rewritings of Greek and Roman Tragedies

This thesis examines three different kinds of socio-political rewritings of Greek and Roman tragedies – Sarah Kane’s “Phaedra’s Love”, Tony Harrison’s “Prometheus”, and Martin Crimp’s “Cruel and Tender” – written, staged or screened in Britain (and, more precisely, England) between 1996 and 2004. Offering close readings of these re-visionary appropriations, this dissertation analyses some of the innumerable and unexpected forms that ancient tragedy can assume today. In particular, it explores how three talented British authors have subverted the conventions of the noblest literary and dramatic genre in order to (re)write contemporaneity in ways that oscillate between the personal and the public, the local and the global, the national and the transnational.

Erasmus Darwin e os seres vivos: concepções de \'evolução\' e herança

Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) apresentou suas ideias evolutivas principalmente no fim do século XVIII. No entanto, elas não foram consideradas na época. Seu neto, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), na 6ª edição do Origin of species as avaliou de modo negativo, comparando-as às concepções equivocadas de Lamarck. O objetivo desta dissertação é inicialmente, descrever as concepções de hereditariedade e evolução de Erasmus, considerando o contexto de sua época. Além disso, procura esclarecer se o tratamento recebido se deveu a uma proposta fraca ou se ela mereceria uma maior consideração. Esta dissertação contém uma Introdução e quatro capítulos. O Capítulo 1 discute a vida, trabalhos e contexto em que Erasmus apresentou suas ideias. O Capítulo 2 lida com as concepções de herança e evolução presentes em Zoonomia. O Capítulo 3 discute sobre as concepções de Erasmus sobre a transformação das espécies nas plantas. O Capítulo 4 compara as concepções evolutivas de Erasmus com as de Lamarck. O Capítulo 5 procura responder às perguntas colocadas no início desta pesquisa e apresenta algumas considerações finais sobre o assunto discutido. Esta pesquisa leva à conclusão de que a transmutação das espécies não era o principal interesse de Erasmus. Ele não ofereceu uma fundamentação empírica para suas ideias. Este fato, juntamente com a situação sócio-político-religiosa da época, muito provavelmente contribuiu para a recepção sofrida. Além disso, embora existam algumas semelhanças entre as propostas de Erasmus e Lamarck, existem também grandes diferenças tais como a abrangência da pesquisa, o espaço dedicado à discussão das ideias, a fundamentação oferecida, dentre outras. Erasmus não propôs uma teoria coerente lidando com desde a origem da vida até o aparecimento do homem como Lamarck. Ele somente apresentou algumas ideias a esse respeito em obras dedicadas a outros assuntos.

The Hybrid Spirit Animating Chinese Pentecostals in Malaysia

This dissertation interrogates the assertion in postcolonial scholarship, especially from the work of Homi Bhabha that the construction and performance of hybrid identities act as a form of resistance for marginalized communities against structures of oppression. While this study supports this assertion, it also critiques how hybridity fails to address issues of unequal power relations. This has led to an uncritical use of hybridity that reproduces the very idea of static identity which its proponents claim to transcend. Through qualitative study of Chinese members of a Pentecostal church in Malaysia, this study argues that church members engage in "unequal belonging" where they privilege certain elements of their identities over others. In concert with Pierre Bourdieu's conceptions of habitus, field, and capital, unequal belonging highlights how hybridity fails to capture the intersecting and competing loyalties, strategies, and complexities of identity formation on a contextual level. Unequal belonging challenges postcolonial scholars to locate the subtle workings of power and privilege that manifest even among marginalized communities. The study first situates the Chinese through an analysis of the historical legacy of British colonialism that has structured the country's current socio-political configuration along bounded categories of identification. The habitus constrains church members to accept certain Chinese ethnic markers as "givens." Although they face continuous marginalization, interviewee data demonstrates that church members negotiate their Chineseness and construct a "Modern Chinese" ethnic identity as a strategic move away from Chinese stereotypes. Moreover, conversion to Christianity affords church members access to cultural capital. Yet, it is limited and unequal capital. In particular, the "Chinese Chinese," who church members have demarcated as backward and traditional, are unable to gain access to this capital because they lack fluency in English and knowledge in modern, westernized worldviews. Unequal belonging nuances monolithic conceptions of hybridity. It demonstrates how church members' privilege of Christianity over Chineseness exposes the complex processes of power and privilege that makes westernized-English-speaking Chinese Christians culturally "higher" than non-English-speaking, non-Christian, Chinese. This study provides significant contribution to the complex aspect of hybridity where it is both a site of resistance and oppression.

International residential tourism in north east Brazil: a stakeholder analysis

This paper analyses the system of actors involved in the development of residential tourism on the north east coast of Brazil. The study observes the socio-political effects of the 2001-2008 real estate boom, focused on the promotion of second homes in closed residential areas. Stakeholder Analysis (SA) is used to identify the various actors’ roles and positions within a particular social space in a tourist setting which is exposed to transnational and real estate interests. The method reveals an unequal and conflict-ridden social reality. The results show that residential tourism shapes the local socio-political configuration, strengthening some actors (urban developers, real estate companies) whilst positioning others in a situation of dependence (local communities, cities).

Adiestrando a la juventud obrera: la política de formación técnica-industrial de la dictadura primorriverista

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar cómo la dictadura de Primo de Rivera llevó a cabo la reforma de la enseñanza industrial del joven obrero a través del Estatuto de Enseñanza Industrial de 1924 y del Estatuto de Formación Profesional de 1928, dentro de la órbita ideológica del “modernismo reaccionario”. La dictadura primorriverista se encontraba en una época influida por las consecuencias de la Gran Guerra y empezaba a percibir la formación profesional técnica-industrial como un mecanismo de adoctrinamiento de la juventud obrera, a partir del cual se podía construir una identidad nacional y profesional, a la vez que modernizar la industria nacional. Por ello, la dictadura de Primo de Rivera decidió centralizar todos los canales de formación industrial del joven obrero a través de un nuevo plan de estudios técnico e industrial dentro de las escuelas industriales y de trabajo. Así intentaba controlar al movimiento obrero, formar una clase media de técnicos industriales, satisfacer las necesidades económicas del país, al mismo tiempo que mantener la jerarquización socio-política tradicional. Pero la aplicación de este proyecto educativo durante la Segunda República no cumplió con las expectativas ideológicas y políticas de la dictadura de Primo de Rivera.

The roots of economic challenges facing Egypt in the aftermath of the 25th January revolution. Jean Monnet Occasional Paper No. 9/2014

Introduction. Since the 25th of January 2011 revolution the Egyptian economy has been suffering on all fronts. Almost all the economic indicators have been pointing towards a deteriorating situation, and in many cases have reached the trough. Yet, the economy is still surviving. This is mainly due to the unprecedented support of some of Arab Gulf countries, whose unconditional aid has helped to mitigate the deteriorating economic conditions. The economic challenges facing Egypt have been exacerbated after the 20th of January revolution mainly because of the deteriorating political and security conditions which have interrupted the functioning of the economy. Yet, this is not to say that revolution has caused these challenges. In fact, the challenges that the Egyptian has been facing have deep roots in its socio-political-economic context, which this paper aims to explain. The revolution and its aftermath have brought to the forefront challenges which have always been mitigated by short-term solutions that never dealt seriously with their roots. Moreover, the revolution has brought additional problems associated with the macroeconomic imbalances. As a result, the challenges became more complex especially in light of the need to balance the social and economic aspects. The paper proceeds as follows; in section one we pinpoint the main challenges faced by Egypt where we identify the symptoms and causes of such challenges. In section two we discuss the roots of such challenges. Finally, we conclude and provide our understanding of how Egypt is expected to face its challenges in the near future.

Turkey: has the AKP ended its winning streak? OSW Commentary No. 117, 2013-10-07

Since the conservative Justice and Development Party (AKP) took power in Turkey in 2002, it has enjoyed a constant winning streak: it won each election (with a support level of 49.83% in 2011), subordinated the army (which had de facto stood above the civilian government) and was reforming the country. The situation in the country was stable (especially when compared to the crises and restlessness in the 1990s), the economy was booming, Turkey’s position in regional politics was strengthening, and Ankara’s significance on the international arena was growing. This encouraged the ruling class to make long-term plans, leading up to the hundredth anniversary of the republic in 2023. In the coming decade, Turkey governed by the AKP was to become one of the global economic and political centres, a full member of the EU and at the same time a political and economic leader in the Middle East. However, the negative trends in the situation both domestically (mass public protests, the deadlocked Kurdish issue and the unsuccessful attempt to amend the constitution) and abroad (the war in Syria and the coup in Egypt) seen over the past few months have laid bare the limitations of the AKP’s rule and have affected the government’s democratic mandate, prestige and credibility on the international arena, as well as peace and order and domestic security. When compared to the beginning of 2013, the way the situation will develop in Turkey is at this moment definitely less predictable; and the possible scenarios include both relative peace (however, with socio-political tension present in the background) and the threat of destabilisation. Therefore, although the AKP will still remain the sole major political force, this party will have to face challenges which will decide not only its political future but also the directions the country will be developing in. However, a comprehensive solution of the accumulated problems and a simple return to the status quo ante, convenient to the government, seem unlikely in the foreseeable future.

Turkey's economy: a story of success with an uncertain future. OSW Commentary No. 120, 2013-11-05

In the decade since the Justice and Development Party (AKP) came to power, Turkey’s economy has become synonymous with success and well-implemented reforms. Economic development has been the basis of both socio-political stability inside the country and of an ambitious foreign policy agenda pursued by the AKP. However, the risks associated with a series of unresolved issues are becoming increasingly apparent. These include the country’s current account deficit, its over-reliance on short-term external financing, and unfinished reforms, for example of the education sector. This leaves Turkey exposed to over-dependence on investors, especially from the West. Consequently, Ankara has become a hostage of its own image as an economically successful state with a stable socio-political system. Any changes to this image would cause capital flight, as exemplified by the outflow of portfolio investment1 and an increase in the cost of external debt2 that followed the nationwide protests over the proposed closure of Gezi Park last summer. In addition, Turkey remains vulnerable to potential changes in investor sentiment towards emerging markets.