The Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change in Coasts and Oceans: Literature Review, Policy Implications and Research Agenda

Sea level rise and other effects of climate change on oceans and coasts around the world are major reasons to halt the emissions of greenhouse gases to the maximum extent. But historical emissions and sea level rise have already begun so steps to adapt to a world where shorelines, coastal populations, and economies could be dramatically altered are now essential. This presents significant economic challenges in four areas. (1) Large expenditures for adaptation steps may be required but the extent of sea level rise and thus the expenditures are unknowable at this point. Traditional methods for comparing benefits and costs are severely limited, but decisions must still be made. (2) It is not clear where the funding for adaptation will come from, which is a barrier to even starting planning. (3) The extent of economic vulnerability has been illustrated with assessments of risks to current properties, but these likely significantly understate the risks that lie in the future. (4) Market-based solutions to reducing climate change are now generally accepted, but their role in adaptation is less clear. Reviewing the literature addressing each of these points, this paper suggests specific strategies for dealing with uncertainty in assessing the economics of adaptation options, reviews the wide range of options for funding coastal adaption, identifies a number of serious deficiencies in current economic vulnerability studies, and suggests how market based approaches might be used in shaping adaptation strategies. The paper concludes by identifying a research agenda for the economics of coastal adaptation that, if completed, could significantly increase the likelihood of economically efficient coastal adaptation.

"A passionate adaptation of a classic novel" : Jane Eyre: From a politically charged novel, to a passionate love story

The novel Jane Eyre, written by Charlotte Brontë, is very appreciated and famous. It has been adapted several times into different media, such as films, musicals and theatres. In this essay I will compare the novel with Cary Joji Fukunaga’s film adaption from 2011. I will compare the characters Jane Eyre and Mr. Rochester and examine how they are portrayed, and I will also discuss the difference between Mr. Brocklehurst in the novel and in the film. I argue that the characters and some of the situations are adjusted to fit a modern audience. I also argue that the film is a romanticized, de-politicized version of the novel. Many of Jane’s reflections upon life, love, class, gender and so on are less developed in the film and the film is more of a love story than a story about a young woman’s life in the Victorian era. 

UTFORMNING AV GÅNG-, CYKEL- OCH MOPED-NÄT ANPASSAT FÖR ELCYKEL

Purpose: An increase in the number of pedelecs on Swedish roads is according to studies soon reality. This creates a need to adapt the bmp-grid (bike-, moped- and pedestrian-grid) to pedelecs for them to experience good security, accessibility and comfort while using it. The guidelines Swedish municipalities follow are VGU(Design of Roads and Streets) and the GCM-manual(Bike-, moped-, and pedestrian-manual) which currently do not take society’s future increase of pedelecs into account. VGU and the GCM-manual are tools that are commonly used during planning and design of roads and streets. The aim of the thesis is to use current advice and recommendations on how to adapt the bmp-grid to the pedelec and with this complete current guidelines for bmp-infrastructure. Method: The document-analysis is made on current federal documents that have an impact on bmp-design. Scetch-suggestions were then developed from the author’s personal improvement suggestions and from advice and recommendations gathered during the document-analysis and the theoretical framework. Findings: It was discovered that if the bmp-grid’s design allow bikes traveling up to 30km/h and has a good standard for bicycles according to VGU, then the infrastructure generally fulfil the needs of the pedelec. Altough there are still areas in VGU that needs complements. This need to be done on the design-guidelines so they can aid the adaption of the infrastructure to the pedelec during the planning- and design process. Necessary steps according to the result is to give clearer notifications on bmp-design, issue guidelines for choosing DTS, motivate minimal widths on roads, categories bikers and pedestrians into separate groups, give out more detailed descriptions of when separation of bikers and pedestrians should be done and also to specify different types of bike-users. When taking needs and claim of the pedelec into consideration the result shows that: adaption of the whole bmp-grid to the pedelec is not possible, to simplify priorities the bmp-grid needs to be divided into different sections, space should be taken from the car-traffic, solutions with mixed-traffic and bike-fields for pedelecs can be used in low-speed areas, larger opportunities to connect towns to increase commuting with bicycles appeared with the pedelec. Implications: After examining current guidelines regarding the design of the bmp-grid and gathering opinions on this from interviews the conclusion is that several areas in VGU needs completion. The following are recommendations on how to take the pedelec into consideration during the design-process:• Connect towns and urban-areas with bmp-grids to make use of pedelecs capacity.• Where there is not enough space for both cars and separated pedelec- and bike lanes the speed for car-traffic can be lowered to 30km/h. This creates opportunities with mixed-traffic or bike-lanes.• The width of existing roads and streets are often greater than what’s described in VGU. They can be made smaller to free space on roads for bicycle-infrastructure.• To prioritize which parts of the bmp-grid that needs design to allow pedelecs the bmp-grid can be divided into main- and local grid. The main grid should be design with consideration to the needs and claim of the pedelecs. Limitations: The limitation of the study lies in that none of the interviews where done with employees in any of the bigger municipalities in Sweden. This gives the study a general application in small- to middle-sized cities but not in bigger cities.Keywords: elcykel, ebike, pedelec, utformning, cykel, infrastruktur, infrastructure, society, planering, utformning, säkerhet, fordonstyp

Musculoskeletal asymmetry in football athletes: A product of limb function over time.

PURPOSE: Asymmetrical loading patterns are commonplace in football sports. Our aim was to examine the influence of training age and limb function on lower-body musculoskeletal morphology. METHODS: Fifty-five elite football athletes were stratified into less experienced (≤3 yr; n = 27) and more experienced (>3 yr; n = 28) groups by training age. All athletes underwent whole-body dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry scans and lower-body peripheral quantitative computed tomography tibial scans on the kicking and support limbs. RESULTS: Significant interactions between training age and limb function were evident across all skeletal parameters (F16, 91 = 0.182, P = 0.031, Wilks Λ = 0.969). Asymmetries between limbs were significantly larger in the more experienced players than the less experienced players for tibial mass (P ≤ 0.044, d ≥ 0.50), total cross-sectional area (P ≤ 0.039, d ≥ 0.53), and stress-strain indices (P ≤ 0.050, d ≥ 0.42). No significant asymmetry was evident for total volumetric density. More experienced players also exhibited greater lower-body tibial mass (P ≤ 0.001, d ≥ 1.22), volumetric density (P ≤ 0.009, d ≥ 0.79), cross-sectional area (P ≤ 0.387, d ≥ 0.21), stress-strain indices (P ≤ 0.012, d ≥ 0.69), fracture loads (P ≤ 0.018, d ≥ 0.57), and muscle mass and cross-sectional area (P ≤ 0.016, d ≥ 0.68) than less experienced players. CONCLUSIONS: Asymmetries were evident in athletes as a product of limb function over time. Chronic exposure to routine high-impact gravitational loads afforded to the support limb preferentially improved bone mass and structure (cross-sectional area and cortex thickness) as potent contributors to bone strength relative to the high-magnitude muscular loads predominantly afforded to the kicking limb.

The application of symphytosociology in landscape architecture in the Western Mediterranean

This essay addresses the application of indigenous plants in Landscape Architecture projects, based on studies carried out in the field of phytosociology and sinphytosociology. Through this knowledge, it is possible to increase and improve the use of indigenous plants in Projects, aiming at the preservation of biodiversity. Thus, to better understand the western Mediterranean territory, we present a brief biophysical characterization, in which we point out the main factors which contribute to the ground coverage’s distribution in the landscape, namely, concerning climate (oceanity, ombroclimate and thermoclimate) and substrate (geology and lithology). In view of the high level of uniqueness of the identified conditions, a synthesis of the potential main existing climatophilous woods is carried out, regarding sinphytosocialogical class/order, furthermore, pointing out, the main serial stages, their vegetation bioindicators and the ecological peculiarities of each stage (regressive or progressive). Therefore, based on the study area, we point out the vegetation bioindicator’s value as a work tool during analysis, thus allowing us to understand the existing edaphoclimatic conditions, as well as to elaborate a quick diagnosis of each potential climatophilous vegetation series. Moreover, based on the main stages of substitution, it is also possible to identify the presence of endemic plants, or under protection status, and finally, the conservation state of the study area. Further ahead, in project proposal phase, based on information gathered previously, we point out the possibility of elaborating a list of plants correctly adapted to the existing mesologicall conditions. Thus, within each serial stage, the necessary ecological conditions for a correct adaption of the vegetation material are referred, therefore, avoiding possible limiting factors to their development, such as precipitation, soil erosion, light availability, salinity, among many others. Lastly, some considerations are made about the main ideas that should be remembered throughout this essay, namely, regarding the importance of the use of sinphytosociology’s knowledge as an analysis tool, as well as of high interest for the elaboration of proposals which aim at the floristic heritage’s conservation and the landscape’s scenic quality. Ce travail traite de l`application de plantes autochtones dans des projets d`Architecture Paysagiste ayant pour base des études réalisées dans le cadre de la phytosociologie et Symphytosociologie. À travers ces connaissances, il est possible d`incrémenter et améliorer l`utilisation de plantes autochtones dans les Projets basés sur la conservation de la biodiversité. Ainsi, afin de mieux comprendre le territorie de la méditérrannée occidentale, on présente une brève caractérisation biophysique, dans laquelle nous soulignons les principaux facteurs qui contribuent à la répartition de la végétation dans le paysage, notamment au niveau climatique (l`océanité, ombrothermique et thermoclimatique) et du substrat (géologie et lithologie). Face aux conditions, identifiées ci-dessus, élévées en originalité, il est utile d`élaborer une synthèse des principaux bois potentiels climatophiles existants au niveau de la classe/ordre symphitosociologique, en soulignant également les principales étapes de série, leurs bioindicateurs végétaux et aux particularités écologiques de chaque étape (régressive ou progressive). Ainsi, sur la base de l`interprétation de la zone d`étude, le bioindicateur végétal se distingue comme un outil de travail durant l`analyse, permettant de cette façon comprendre les conditions édapho-climatiques existantes, ainsi comme élaborer un rapide diagnostic de chaque série de végétation potentielle climatophile. En outre, sur la base des principales étapes de remplacement, il est également possible d`identifier la présence de plantes endémiques, ou avec un statut de protection et enfin l`état de conservation de la zone d`étude. Déjà au stade de proposition du projet, basée sur l`information recueillie précédemment, il y a la possibilité d`établir une liste de plantes bien adaptées aux conditions mésologiques. Ainsi, dans chaque étape de série, les conditions écologiques nécessaires à une bonne adaptation de la matière végétale sont référées, évitant ainsi des facteurs limitant à son développement, tels que les précipitations, l`érosion des soís, disponibilité de la lumière, de la salinité, parmi beaucoup d`autres. Et enfin, quelques considérations se tissent sur les principales idées à retenir tout au long du travail, notamment l`importance d`utiliser la connaissance de la symphytosociologie comme un outil d`analyse d`un grand intérêt pour la développement de propositions pour la conservation du patrimoine floristique et la qualité pittoresque du paysage.