Recovery of hearing and vocal behavior after hair-cell regeneration

Postmitotic hair-cell regeneration in the inner ear of birds provides an opportunity to study the effect of renewed auditory input on auditory perception, vocal production, and vocal learning in a vertebrate. We used behavioral conditioning to test both perception and vocal production in a small Australian parrot, the budgerigar. Results show that both auditory perception and vocal production are disrupted when hair cells are damaged or lost but that these behaviors return to near normal over time. Precision in vocal production completely recovers well before recovery of full auditory function. These results may have particular relevance for understanding the relation between hearing loss and human speech production especially where there is consideration of an auditory prosthetic device. The present results show, at least for a bird, that even limited recovery of auditory input soon after deafening can support full recovery of vocal precision.

Song selectivity and sensorimotor signals in vocal learning and production

Bird song, like human speech, is a learned vocal behavior that requires auditory feedback. Both as juveniles, while they learn to sing, and as adults, songbirds use auditory feedback to compare their own vocalizations with an internal model of a target song. Here we describe experiments that explore a role for the songbird anterior forebrain pathway (AFP), a basal ganglia-forebrain circuit, in evaluating song feedback and modifying vocal output. First, neural recordings in anesthetized, juvenile birds show that single AFP neurons are specialized to process the song stimuli that are compared during sensorimotor learning. AFP neurons are tuned to both the bird's own song and the tutor song, even when these stimuli are manipulated to be very different from each other. Second, behavioral experiments in adult birds demonstrate that lesions to the AFP block the deterioration of song that normally follows deafening. This observation suggests that deafening results in an instructive signal, indicating a mismatch between feedback and the internal song model, and that the AFP is involved in generating or transmitting this instructive signal. Finally, neural recordings from behaving birds reveal robust singing-related activity in the AFP. This activity is likely to originate from premotor areas and could be modulated by auditory feedback of the bird's own voice. One possibility is that this activity represents an efference copy, predicting the sensory consequences of motor commands. Overall, these studies illustrate that sensory and motor processes are highly interrelated in this circuit devoted to vocal learning, as is true for brain areas involved in speech.

On cortical coding of vocal communication sounds in primates

Understanding how the brain processes vocal communication sounds is one of the most challenging problems in neuroscience. Our understanding of how the cortex accomplishes this unique task should greatly facilitate our understanding of cortical mechanisms in general. Perception of species-specific communication sounds is an important aspect of the auditory behavior of many animal species and is crucial for their social interactions, reproductive success, and survival. The principles of neural representations of these behaviorally important sounds in the cerebral cortex have direct implications for the neural mechanisms underlying human speech perception. Our progress in this area has been relatively slow, compared with our understanding of other auditory functions such as echolocation and sound localization. This article discusses previous and current studies in this field, with emphasis on nonhuman primates, and proposes a conceptual platform to further our exploration of this frontier. It is argued that the prerequisite condition for understanding cortical mechanisms underlying communication sound perception and production is an appropriate animal model. Three issues are central to this work: (i) neural encoding of statistical structure of communication sounds, (ii) the role of behavioral relevance in shaping cortical representations, and (iii) sensory–motor interactions between vocal production and perception systems.

Effects of Oxygen on Nodule Physiology and Expression of Nodulins in Alfalfa1

Early nodulin 2 (ENOD2) transcripts and protein are specifically found in the inner cortex of legume nodules, a location that coincides with the site of a barrier to O2 diffusion. The extracellular glycoprotein that binds the monoclonal antibody MAC236 has also been localized to this site. Thus, it has been proposed that these proteins function in the regulation of nodule permeability to O2 diffusion. It would then be expected that the levels of ENOD2 mRNA/protein and MAC236 antigen would differ in nodules with different permeabilities to O2. We examined the expression of ENOD2 and other nodule-expressed genes in Rhizobium meliloti-induced alfalfa nodules grown under 8, 20, or 50% O2. Although there was a change in the amount of MAC236 glycoprotein, the levels of ENOD2 mRNA and protein did not differ significantly among nodules grown at the different [O2], suggesting that neither ENOD2 transcription nor synthesis is involved in the long-term regulation of nodule permeability. Moreover, although nodules from all treatments reduced their permeability to O2 as the partial pressure of O2 (pO2) was increased to 100%, the levels of extractable ENOD2 and MAC236 proteins did not differ from those measured at the growth pO2, further suggesting that if these proteins are involved in a short-term regulation of the diffusion barrier, they must be involved in a way that does not require increased transcription or protein synthesis.

Low molecular weight EPS II of Rhizobium meliloti allows nodule invasion in Medicago sativa.

Effective invasion of alfalfa by Rhizobium meliloti Rm1021 normally requires the presence of succinoglycan, an exopolysaccharide (EPS) produced by the bacterium. However, Rm1021 has the ability to produce a second EPS (EPS II) that can suppress the symbiotic defects of succinoglycan-deficient strains. EPS II is a polymer of modified glucose-(beta-1,3)-galactose subunits and is produced by Rm1021 derivatives carrying either an expR101 or mucR mutation. If the ability to synthesize succinoglycan is blocked genetically, expR101 derivatives of Rm1021 are nodulation-proficient, whereas mucR derivatives of Rm1021 are not. The difference in nodulation proficiency between these two classes of EPS II-producing strains is due to the specific production of a low molecular weight form of EPS II by expR101 strains. A low molecular weight EPS II fraction consisting of 15-20 EPS II disaccharide subunits efficiently allows nodule invasion by noninfective strains when present in amounts as low as 7 pmol per plant, suggesting that low molecular weight EPS II may act as a symbiotic signal during infection.

Oxygen as a key developmental regulator of Rhizobium meliloti N2-fixation gene expression within the alfalfa root nodule.

The symbiotic pattern of expression of Rhizobium meliloti N2-fixation genes is tightly coupled with the histological organization of the alfalfa root nodule and thus is under developmental control. N2-fixation gene expression is induced very sharply at a particular zone of the nodule called interzone II-III that precedes the zone where N2 fixation takes place. We show here that this coupling can be disrupted, hereby resulting in ectopic expression of N2-fixation genes in the prefixing zone II of the nodule. Uncoupling was obtained either by using a R. meliloti strain in which a mutation rendered N2-fixation gene expression constitutive with respect to oxygen in free-living bacterial cultures or by placing nodules induced by a wild-type R. meliloti strain in a microoxic environment. These results implicate oxygen as a key determinant of the symbiotic pattern of N2-fixation gene expression.

Relações entre comportamento vocal, imunidade e níveis plasmáticos de corticosterona e testosterona em sapos (Rhinella granulosa)

A exibição do comportamento vocal em muitas espécies de anfíbios anuros é relacionada aos níveis de hormônios esteroides gonadais e interrenais. Esses hormônios poderiam mediar a relação entre intensidade de sinais e imunidade, pois estão envolvidos no desenvolvimento das características sexuais secundárias, comportamento de corte e mobilização de reservas energéticas durante a atividade reprodutiva, enquanto apresentam também efeitos imunomoduladores. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste trabalho foi explorar as relações entre comportamento reprodutivo, imunidade e níveis plasmáticos de testosterona e corticosterona em machos do sapo do semiárido brasileiro, Rhinella granulosa, em atividade reprodutiva e após manipulação hormonal. A precipitação foi o principal determinante ambiental para o aumento dos níveis de testosterona e corticosterona circulantes em machos de R. granulosa, estimulando o comportamento de vocalização. As relações fisiológicas encontradas indicam que os altos níveis plasmáticos de testosterona nos primeiros dias após a chuva devem promover o início do turno vocal, porém a corticosterona deve modular o esforço de vocalização. De forma geral, a exacerbação do comportamento vocal de R. granulosa tem efeitos negativos sobre a imunocompetência, porém alguns indivíduos que apresentam maiores concentrações plasmáticas de corticosterona apresentam concomitantemente alto esforço vocal e alta imunidade. De acordo, a aplicação transdérmica de corticosterona promoveu elevação aguda dos níveis plasmáticos deste glicocorticoide, bem como um aumento da função imune. Assim, apesar de a atenção principal ser comumente colocada no papel da testosterona na mediação de sinais honestos, nossos resultados corroboram a importância da corticosterona na mediação da expressão do comportamento de corte e imunocompetência em machos R. granulosa

Aplicação de uma rede neural artificial para a avaliação da rugosidade e soprosidade vocal

A avaliação perceptivo-auditiva tem papel fundamental no estudo e na avaliação da voz, no entanto, por ser subjetiva está sujeita a imprecisões e variações. Por outro lado, a análise acústica permite a reprodutibilidade de resultados, porém precisa ser aprimorada, pois não analisa com precisão vozes com disfonias mais intensas e com ondas caóticas. Assim, elaborar medidas que proporcionem conhecimentos confiáveis em relação à função vocal resulta de uma necessidade antiga dentro desta linha de pesquisa e atuação clínica. Neste contexto, o uso da inteligência artificial, como as redes neurais artificiais, indica ser uma abordagem promissora. Objetivo: Validar um sistema automático utilizando redes neurais artificiais para a avaliação de vozes rugosas e soprosas. Materiais e métodos: Foram selecionadas 150 vozes, desde neutras até com presença em grau intenso de rugosidade e/ou soprosidade, do banco de dados da Clínica de Fonoaudiologia da Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru (FOB/USP). Dessas vozes, 23 foram excluídas por não responderem aos critérios de inclusão na amostra, assim utilizaram-se 123 vozes. Procedimentos: avaliação perceptivo-auditiva pela escala visual analógica de 100 mm e pela escala numérica de quatro pontos; extração de características do sinal de voz por meio da Transformada Wavelet Packet e dos parâmetros acústicos: jitter, shimmer, amplitude da derivada e amplitude do pitch; e validação do classificador por meio da parametrização, treino, teste e avaliação das redes neurais artificiais. Resultados: Na avaliação perceptivo-auditiva encontrou-se, por meio do teste Coeficiente de Correlação Intraclasse (CCI), concordâncias inter e intrajuiz excelentes, com p = 0,85 na concordância interjuízes e p variando de 0,87 a 0,93 nas concordâncias intrajuiz. Em relação ao desempenho da rede neural artificial, na discriminação da soprosidade e da rugosidade e dos seus respectivos graus, encontrou-se o melhor desempenho para a soprosidade no subconjunto composto pelo jitter, amplitude do pitch e frequência fundamental, no qual obteve-se taxa de acerto de 74%, concordância excelente com a avaliação perceptivo-auditiva da escala visual analógica (0,80 no CCI) e erro médio de 9 mm. Para a rugosidade, o melhor subconjunto foi composto pela Transformada Wavelet Packet com 1 nível de decomposição, jitter, shimmer, amplitude do pitch e frequência fundamental, no qual obteve-se 73% de acerto, concordância excelente (0,84 no CCI), e erro médio de 10 mm. Conclusão: O uso da inteligência artificial baseado em redes neurais artificiais na identificação, e graduação da rugosidade e da soprosidade, apresentou confiabilidade excelente (CCI > 0,80), com resultados semelhantes a concordância interjuízes. Dessa forma, a rede neural artificial revela-se como uma metodologia promissora de avaliação vocal, tendo sua maior vantagem a objetividade na avaliação.

Description of, and 238U, 234U, 232Th and 230Th measurements on a nodule from R/V Sonne station SO79_62KD, Central East Pacific Ocean

Two diagenetic manganese nodules from the Peru Basin were investigated by thermal ionization mass spectrometry and high resolution alpha spectrometry for uranium and thorium. The TIMS concentrations for nodule 62KD (63KG) vary as follows: 0.12-1.01 ppb (0.06-0.59) 230Th, 0.51-1.98 ppm (0.43-1.40) 232Th, 0.13-0.80 ppb (0.09-0.49) 234U, and 1.95-13.47 ppm (1.66-8.24) 238U. Both nodules have average growth rates of ~110 mm per million years. However, from the variations of excess 230Th with depth we estimate partial accumulation rates which range from 50 to 400 mm per million years. The 234U dating method cannot be applied due to remobilization of U from the sediment and subsequent incorporation into the nodules' crystal lattice, reflected by decay corrected 234U values far above the ocean water value. Sections of fast nodule growth are related to those layers having high Mn/Fe ratios (up to 200) and higher densities. As a possible explanation we develop a scenario that describes similar glacial/interglacial trends in both nodules as a record of regional changes of sediment and/or deep water chemistry.

Description and 238U, 234U, 232Th and 230Th measurements of the manganese nodule analysed from station SO79_63KG, R/V SONNE

Thorium and uranium isotopes were measured in a diagenetic manganese nodule from the Peru basin applying alpha- and thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS). Alpha-counting of 62 samples was carried out with a depth resolution of 0.4 mm to gain a high-resolution Th-230(excess) profile. In addition, 17 samples were measured with TIMS to obtain precise isotope concentrations and isotope ratios. We got values of 0.06-0.59 ppb (Th-230), 0.43-1.40 ppm (Th-232), 0.09-0.49 ppb (U-234) and 1.66-8.24 ppm (U-238). The uranium activity ratio in the uppermost samples (1-6 mm) and in two further sections in the nodule at 12.5+/-1.0 mm and 27.3-33.5 mm comes close to the present ocean wa ter value of 1.144+/-0.004. In two other sections of the nodule, this ratio is significantly higher, probably reflecting incorporation of diagenetic uranium. The upper 25 mm section of the Mn nodule shows a relatively smooth exponential decrease in the Th-230(excess) concentration (TIMS). The slope of the best fit yields a growth rate of 110 mm/Ma up to 24.5 mm depth. The section from 25 to 30.3 mm depth shows constant Th-230(excess) concentrations probably due to growth rates even faster than those in the top section of the nodule. From 33 to 50 mm depth, the growth rate is approximately 60 mm/Ma. Two layers in the nodule with distinct laminations (11-15 and 28-33 mm depth) probably formed during the transition from isotopic stage 8 to 7 and in stage 5e, respectively. The Mn/Fe ratio shows higher values during interglacials 5 and 7, and lower ones during glacials 4 and 6. A comparison of our data with data from adjacent sediment cores suggests (a) a variable sb supply of hydrothermal Mn to sediments and Mn nodules of the Peru basin or (b) suboxic conditions at the water sediment interface during periods with lower Mn/Fe ratios.

(Table 1) Compositional variation with depth in a nodule of sediment sample RVG-10D

A detailed study of a nodule from the Somali Basin dated by 230Thexcess was correlated with the paleoceanographic events recorded in Site 236 (Leg 24) Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) cores. Tentative indications are that the phase of nodule accretion starting with the development of pillar structure at a depth of 20 mm in the nodule around 13 Ma coincides with increased Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) flow and an elevated calciumcarbonate compensation depth (CCD). The Late Miocene lowering of the CCD is represented by the mottled zones between 8 and 18 mm in the nodule is characterised by an abundant silicate component (>20%) of aeolian origin. The Miocene/Pliocene boundary (5 Ma) occurs at a depth of about 8 mm and is represented by the development of pillar structure and a minimum of aeolian dust (10.3%). The increased biological productivity of the Somali surface water since the Middle Miocene is demonstrated by the increasing Corg content of the nodule (from 0.11 to 0.19%) towards its surface.

(Fig 1, page 350) A manganese nodule in the top part of the CHUBASCO station 17 core taken in the Pacific Ocean

The vast extent of pelagic deposits, covering about 70 per cent of the ocean floor, thus about half of the earth, makes them of obvious importance to all Earth Science. All the pelagic (eupelagic) sediments, whether largely of plankton remains or fine inorganic particles, have certain distinctive characteristics to reflect their environment of accumulation. The great segregation of manganese in pelagic sediments presents many problems. It is hypothesized that in the formation of present day nodules a relatively slow accumulation in order to permit deposition of more of the manganese as large nodules, rather than as the disseminated micronodules that are in larger proportion in the Tertiary.