The biological application of cobalt

This review collects and summarises the biological applications of the element cobalt. Small amounts of the ferromagnetic metal can be found in rock, soil, plants and animals, but is mainly obtained as a by-product of nickel and copper mining, and is separated from the ores (mainly cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite) using a variety of methods. Compounds of cobalt include several oxides, including: green cobalt(II) (CoO), blue cobalt(II,III) (Co3O4), and black cobalt(III) (Co2O3); four halides including pink cobalt(II) fluoride (CoF2), blue cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2), green cobalt(II) bromide (CoBr2), and blue-black cobalt(II) iodide (CoI2). The main application of cobalt is in its metal form in cobalt-based super alloys, though other uses include lithium cobalt oxide batteries, chemical reaction catalyst, pigments and colouring, and radioisotopes in medicine. It is known to mimic hypoxia on the cellular level by stabilizing the α subunit of hypoxia inducing factor (HIF), when chemically applied as cobalt chloride (CoCl2). This is seen in many biological research applications, where it has shown to promote angiogenesis, erythropoiesis and anaerobic metabolism through the transcriptional activation of genes such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and erythropoietin (EPO), contributing significantly to the pathophysiology of major categories of disease, such as myocardial, renal and cerebral ischaemia, high altitude related maladies and bone defects. As a necessary constituent for the formation of vitamin B12, it is essential to all animals, including humans, however excessive exposure can lead to tissue and cellular toxicity. Cobalt has been shown to provide promising potential in clinical applications, however further studies are necessary to clarify its role in hypoxia-responsive genes and the applications of cobalt-chloride treated tissues.

A comparison of calculated and experimental HRTEM images of twinned boron carbide

High resolution TEM images of boron carbide (B13C2) have been recorded and compared with images calculated using the multislice method as implemented by M. A. O'Keefe in the SHRLI programs. Images calculated for the [010] zone, using machine parameters for the JEOL 2000FX AEM operating at 200 keV, indicate that for the structure model of Will et al., the optimum defocus image can be interpreted such that white spots correspond to B12 icosahedra for thin specimens and to low density channels through the structure adjacent to the direct inter-icosahedral bonds for specimens of intermediate thickness (-40 > t > -100 nm). With this information, and from the symmetry observed in the TEM images, it is likely that the (101) twin plane passes through the center of icosahedron located at the origin. This model was tested using the method of periodic continuation. Resulting images compare favorably with experimental images, thus supporting the structural model. The introduction of a (101) twin plane through the origin creates distortions to the icosahedral linkages as well as to the intra-icosahedral bonding. This increases the inequivalence of adjacent icosahedral sites along the twin plane, and thereby increases the likelihood of bipolaron hopping.

Nitrogen removal from natural gas using solid boron : A first-principles computational study

Selective separation of nitrogen (N2) from methane (CH4) is highly significant in natural gas purification, and it is very challenging to achieve this because of their nearly identical size (the molecular diameters of N2 and CH4 are 3.64 Å and 3.80 Å, respectively). Here we theoretically study the adsorption of N2 and CH4 on B12 cluster and solid boron surfaces a-B12 and c-B28. Our results show that these electron-deficiency boron materials have higher selectivity in adsorbing and capturing N2 than CH4, which provides very useful information for experimentally exploiting boron materials for natural gas purification.

The effects of vitamin supplementation and MTHFR (C677T) genotype on homocysteine-lowering and migraine disability

BACKGROUND: Migraine is a prevalent and debilitating disease that may, in part, arise because of disruption in neurovascular endothelia caused by elevated homocysteine. This study examined the homocysteine-lowering effects of vitamin supplementation on migraine disability, frequency and severity and whether MTHFRC677T genotype influenced treatment response. METHODS: This was a randomized, double-blind placebo, controlled trial of 6 months of daily vitamin supplementation (i.e. 2 mg of folic acid, 25 mg vitamin B6, and 400 microg of vitamin B12) in 52 patients diagnosed with migraine with aura. FINDINGS: Vitamin supplementation reduced homocysteine by 39% (approximately 4 mumol/l) compared with baseline, a reduction that was greater then placebo (P=0.001). Vitamin supplementation also reduced the prevalence of migraine disability from 60% at baseline to 30% after 6 months (P=0.01), whereas no reduction was observed for the placebo group (P>0.1). Headache frequency and pain severity were also reduced (P<0.05), whereas there was no reduction in the placebo group (P>0.1). In this patient group the treatment effect on both homocysteine levels and migraine disability was associated with MTHFRC677T genotype whereby carriers of the C allele experienced a greater response compared with TT genotypes (P<0.05). INTERPRETATION: This study provides some early evidence that lowering homocysteine through vitamin supplementation reduces migraine disability in a subgroup of patients. Larger trials are now warranted to establish whether vitamin therapy is a safe, inexpensive and effective prophylactic option for treatment of migraine and whether efficacy is dependant on MTHFRC677T genotype.

A computational study of carbon dioxide adsorption on solid boron

Capturing and sequestering carbon dioxide (CO2) can provide a route to partial mitigation of climate change associated with anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Here we report a comprehensive theoretical study of CO2 adsorption on two phases of boron, α-B12 and γ-B28. The theoretical results demonstrate that the electron deficient boron materials, such as α-B12 and γ-B28, can bond strongly with CO2 due to Lewis acid-base interactions because the electron density is higher on their surfaces. In order to evaluate the capacity of these boron materials for CO2 capture, we also performed calculations with various degrees of CO2 coverage. The computational results indicate CO2 capture on the boron phases is a kinetically and thermodynamically feasible process, and therefore from this perspective these boron materials are predicted to be good candidates for CO2 capture.

Effects of dietary folate intake on migraine disability and frequency

Objective Migraine is a highly disabling disease affecting a significant proportion of the Australian population. The Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase (MTHFR) C677T variant has been associated with increased levels of homocysteine and risk of migraine with aura (MA). Folic acid, Vitamin B6 and B12 supplementation has been previously shown to reduce increased levels of homocysteine and decrease migraine symptoms. However the influence of dietary folate intake on migraine has been unclear. The aim of the current study was to analyse the association of dietary folate intake in the form of dietary folate equivalent (DFE), folic acid (FA) and total food folate (TFF) on migraine frequency, severity and disability. Methods A cohort of 141 adult females of Caucasian descent with MA was genotyped for the MTHFRC677T variant using restriction enzyme digestion. Dietary folate information was collected from all participants and analysed using the “FoodWorks” 2009 package. Folate consumption was compared to migraine frequency, severity and disability using linear regression. Results A significant inverse relation was observed between DFE [R2= 0.201, P= 0.045, CI (-0.004, -0.001)] and FA [R2= 0.255, P= 0.036, 95% CI (-0.009, -0.002)] consumption and migraine frequency. It was also observed that in individuals with the CC genotype for the MTHFR C677T variant, migraine frequency was significantly linked to FA consumption [R2= 0.077, P= 0.029, CI (-0.009, -0.005)]. Conclusions The results from this study indicate that folate intake in the form of folic acid may influence migraine frequency in female MA sufferers.

Variable phenotype in 16p duplication within a family

Background More individuals are now being identified with very rare genetic syndromes. We present a family with an inherited duplication of 16p11.2 to 16q12.1 in ring formation. Three of the four children, (aged 15 months to 10 years), mother, uncle, and grandmother are affected. Our aim was to provide preliminary evidence of possible phenotypic patterns of learning and behaviour associated with this chromosome anomaly. Method Psychometric assessments were undertaken with all four children. The mother and uncle also agreed to participate in the study. Measures of development (Bayley or Mullen), intellectual ability (WISC-IV or WAIS-III), academic achievement (WIAT-II), adaptive behaviour (Vinelands), and other relevant aspects of functioning (e.g., Children’s Memory Scale) were administered. Results. The first-born child is the only one who is unaffected. Her intellectual ability was assessed as being within the superior range. The second child experienced early difficulties with speech and motor skills. Although his intelligence is average, he has learning difficulties and significant auditory memory problems. The third child’s speech and motor milestones were markedly delayed. He has a complex medical history that includes a vitamin B12 deficiency. On the Mullen Scales at age 4 his scores ranged from average to very low. The development of the youngest child (aged 15 months), who also had a B12 deficiency but was treated early, was assessed as being within typical limits. Conclusions There is considerable developmental variability among the three children with this inherited 16p duplication. We discuss the intriguing similarities and differences, considering common features that may reflect phenotypic patterns and speculating about possible explanations for the variable presentations.

Clinical relevance of MTHFR, eNOS, ACE, and ApoE gene polymorphisms and serum vitamin profile among Malay patients with ischemic stroke

Background The purpose of this study was threefold. First, it was to determine the relationship between serum vitamin profiles and ischemic stroke. The second purpose was to investigate the association of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), and apolipoprotein-E (ApoE) gene polymorphisms with ischemic stroke and further correlate with serum vitamin profiles among ischemic stroke patients. The third purpose of the study was to highlight the interaction of MTHFR and eNOS haplotypes with serum vitamin profiles and ischemic stroke risks. Methods Polymorphisms of these genes were analyzed in age-, sex-, and ethnicity-matched case–controls (n = 594); serum vitamin profiles were determined using immunoassays. Results The MTHFR 677C>T, 1298A>C, eNOS intron 4a/b, and ApoE polymorphisms were significantly associated with the increased risk of ischemic stroke. Elevated serum homocysteine and vitamin B12 levels were associated with MTHFR 677C>T and eNOS intron 4a/b polymorphisms. The ApoE and eNOS −786T>C polymorphisms were associated with increased serum vitamin B12 levels. However, none of the polymorphisms influenced serum folate levels except for the MTHFR 1298A>C. Different patterns of MTHFR and eNOS haplotypes tend to affect serum vitamin profiles to different degrees, which contribute to either different susceptibility risk or protective effect on ischemic stroke. Overall, increased levels of serum homocysteine and vitamin B12 levels were associated with higher risk of ischemic stroke in the investigated population. Conclusions The present study suggests that the genotypes and haplotypes of MTHFR 677C>T and eNOS intron 4a/b polymorphisms are potential serum biomarkers in the pathophysiological processes of ischemic stroke, by modulating homocysteine and vitamin B12 levels.

Vegaaniäidit ja -lapset Suomessa Suosituksista käytäntöön

Suomalaisia vegaaniäitejä ja lapsia ei ole aiemmin tutkittu ravitsemustieteen näkökulmasta. Suomalaisilla suosituksissa (Valtion ravitsemusneuvottelukunta, Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö) lasten ja äitien vegaaniruokavalioon suhtaudutaan varauksellisesti. Pohjois-Amerikassa mm. American Dietetic Association ja American Academy of Pediatrics sen sijaan pitävät vegaaniruokavaliota ravitsemuksellisesti riittävänä myös raskauden ja imetyksen aikana sekä pikkulapsilla. Suomalainen tutkimustieto on tarpeen mm. laadittaessa uusia suosituksia tulevaisuudessa. Tutkimukseen osallistui 14 perhettä. Vegaaniruokavaliota oli noudatettu 11 raskauden ja imetyksen ajan. Syntymästään saakka vegaanilapsia oli 13. Menetelmänä oli kolmeosainen kyselylomake, jonka tutkittavat palauttivat postitse. Raskaus- ja imetysaikaa tarkastellessani käytin vertailuaineistona niitä seitsemää raskautta, jotka eivät täyttäneet vegaaniruokavalion määritelmää, mutta joiden aikana oli syöty tavanomaista sekaruokavaliota kasvispainotteisemmin. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet olivat koulutettuja ja suurin osa asui kaupungissa. Lapset olivat iältään keskimäärin 1 ½-vuotiaita (vaihteluväli pariviikkoisesta 5-vuotiaaseen). Perheet olivat etsineet itse aktiivisesti tietoa ravitsemusasioista ja tietoa oli saatu myös Vegaaniliitosta. Virallinen terveydenhuolto ei ollut juurikaan pystynyt tarjoamaan tietoa: kahdeksan perhettä oli käynyt ravitsemusterapeutin vastaanotolla, mutta vain yksi ilmoitti saaneensa tietoa sitä kautta. Useimmiten perheen ruokavalio oli herättänyt hämmennystä ja epätietoisuutta terveydenhuollossa. Jotkut olivat kokeneet erittäin negatiivista suhtautumista, etenkin lääkärien taholta, mutta myös myönteisiä kokemuksia oli. Vegaaniäitien keskimääräinen painonnousu raskauden aikana oli normaali ja lapset olivat syntyneet normaalipainoisina. Lasten kasvu oli normaalia. Kaikki äidit olivat huolehtineet D- ja B12-saannista. Myös kaikki lapset saivat ko. vitamiinitäydennyksiä lukuun ottamatta yhtä epäselvää tapausta D-vitamiinin suhteen. Vegaaniäidit imettivät pitkään ja olivat lähempänä imetyssuosituksia kuin suomalaiset yleensä. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella suomalaisissa vegaaniperheissä ollaan tietoisia D- ja B12-vitamiinien tärkeydestä ja ravitsemusasioista yleensä. Sellaisia ongelmia ei noussut esille, etteikö ruokavaliota voisi suositella

Design of a Non-glycosylated Outer Domain-derived HIV-1 gp120 Immunogen That Binds to CD4 and Induces Neutralizing Antibodies

The outer domain (OD) of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 is an important target for vaccine design as it contains a number of conserved epitopes, including a large fraction of the CD4 binding site.Attempts to design OD-based immunogens in the past have met with little success. We report the design and characterization of an Escherichia coli-expressed OD-based immunogen (ODEC), based on the sequence of the HxBc2 strain. The ODEC-designed immunogen lacks the variable loops V1V2 and V3 and incorporates 11 designed mutations at the interface of the inner and the outer domains of gp120. Biophysical studies showed that ODEC is folded and protease-resistant, whereas ODEC lacking the designed mutations is highly aggregation-prone. In contrast to previously characterized OD constructs, ODEC bound CD4 and the broadly neutralizing antibody b12 but not the non-neutralizing antibodies b6 and F105. Upon immunization in rabbits, ODEC was highly immunogenic,and the sera showed measurable neutralization for four subtype B and one subtype C virus including two b12-resistant viruses. In contrast,sera from rabbits immunized with gp120 did not neutralize any of the viruses. ODEC is the first example of a gp120 fragment-based immunogen that yields significant neutralizing antibodies.

Designed Cyclic Permutants of HIV-1 gp120: Implications for Envelope Trimer Structure and Immunogen Design

Most HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies are directed against the gp120 subunit of the env surface protein. Native env consists of a trimer of gp120-gp41 heterodimers, and in contrast to monomeric gp120, preferentially binds CD4 binding site (CD4bs)-directed neutralizing antibodies over non-neutralizing ones. Some cryo-electron tomography studies have suggested that the V1V2 loop regions of gp120 are located close to the trimer interface. We have therefore designed cyclically permuted variants of gp120 with and without the h-CMP and SUMO2a trimerization domains inserted into the V1V2 loop. h-CMP-V1cyc is one such variant in which residues 153 and 142 are the N- and C-terminal residues, respectively, of cyclically permuted gp120 and h-CMP is fused to the N-terminus. This molecule forms a trimer under native conditions and binds CD4 and the neutralizing CD4bs antibodies b12 with significantly higher affinity than wild-type gp120. It binds non-neutralizing CD4bs antibody F105 with lower affinity than gp120. A similar derivative, h-CMP-V1cycl, bound the V1V2 loop-directed broadly neutralizing antibodies PG9 and PG16 with similar to 20-fold higher affinity than wild-type JRCSF gp120. These cyclic permutants of gp120 are properly folded and are potential immunogens. The data also support env models in which the V1V2 loops are proximal to the trimer interface.

Aplicación de algunas prácticas de manejo y su efecto en el anestro en vacas del Municipio de San Dionisio Matagalpa

El presente estudio realizado en el municipio de San Dionisia Departamento de Matagalpa, a travéz de un estudio retrospectivo del Banco de datos de seguimiento a fincas que PRODESSA venía realizando desde 1988 en 6 comunidades, permitió caracterizar el ganado manejado en pequeñas fincas encontrándose, un rango promedio de producción de leche de 3 a 5.3 litros y un rango promedio de lactación entre 7.7 a 11.1 meses. La alimentación principal es a base de pasto jaragua (Hyparrhenia ruffa), rastrojos de csecha, leguminosas naturales, en menor grado el pasto Taiwán (Pennisetum purpureum), pasto estrella, (Cynodon nlenfuensis), y suministro de sal común. En salud animal las actividades realizadas son: vacunación contra Ántrax y Pierna Negra, la realizan 2 veces en el año el 100% de productores, control de ectoparásitos 12 baños promedio anuales el 100% de productores, desparasitación interna, 2 veces en el año el 24% de productores, una vez al año el 57% y el 11% no lo realizan, la vitaminación, el 60% realiza una por año, el 12% 2 por año y el 28% de productores no vitaminan. Las pequeñas fincas presentan áreas no mayores de 5 mz. de tierra el 46.75%, el 33.76% con áreas no mayores de 10 mz. de terreno y el 19.43% con áreas mayores de 10 mz. de tierra. Además se definieron siete prácticas de manejo y se evaluó su efecto en vacas con anestro obteniéndose los siguientes resultados: la primera práctica consistió en la suplementación alimenticia a base de maíz triturado (A), desparasitación interna con levamisol (D) y masajes estimulantes (M) a 33 vacas representando el 100% de los animales, manifestando celo al final de la práctica el 9.09%. La segunda práctica se aplicó a un total de 16 vacas que, representan el 48.48% del total inicial, a estas se les suministró vitamina AD,E (V), de las cuales presentaron celo el 21.21%. La tercera práctica se realizó con 14 vacas que representan el 42.42% del cohorte, a las que se les suministró minerales (Mi) aplicando Tonofosfan, presentó celo el 24.24% del total inicial. La cuarta práctica se aplicó a 9 vacas que representan el 27.27% del cohorte, que posterior a la aplicación de la primera y la segunda práctica se les suministró minerales, presentando celo el 12.12% del total inicial. La quinta práctica se aplicó a un total de 6 vacas que representaron el 18.18% del total, a estas se suministró vitamina AD,E, presentó celo el 15.15% del total inicial. La sexta práctica se ejecutó con 5 vacas representando el 15.15%, se les suministro hormonas, a 4 de ellas por presencia de cuerpo lúteo persistente, se les aplicó la hormona Prosolvin y a una Por presencia de quiste folicular se le aplicó la hormona Foligon, de las cuales presentó celo el 3.03%. La séptima práctica se realizó con una vaca, que representa el 3.03% del total inicial se le aplicó la hormona Foligon por presencia de quiste folicular, no logrando esta vaca presentar celo con esta última práctica. Al comparar las prácticas entre ellas se obtuvieron los siguientes resultados: Se encontraron diferencias significativas (P<0.05) al comparar la primera práctica con la segunda, tercera, cuarta y quinta práctica, mayoritariamente hacia la segunda, tercera, cuarta y quinta práctica, de igual manera al comparar la quinta con la sexta y séptima práctica se encontraron diferencias significativas (P<0.05) con mayor efecto a la quinta práctica.

Induccion del celo en vacas en anestro post parto mediante la administracion de sales minerales, vitaminas y masajes ovaricos. Realizada en el municipio de Rio Blanco, departamento de Matagalpa

El presente estudio se realizó con el objetivo de establecer la efectividad del tratamiento de Inducción al celo de vacas en anestro post parto por medio de la administración de sales minerales, vitaminas y masajes ovarios; dicho tratamiento fue llevado a cabo en el municipio de Río Blanco departamento de Matagalpa. Caracterizándose por una buena distribución de las lluvias la mayor parte del año. El dicho municipio se da una predominancia de una cultura de gran alta productividad ganadera, el tamaño requerido de la muestra de este trabajo de 20 hembras en periodo de anestro post parto mayor de 50 días, las cuales fueron seleccionadas al azar y evalua das clínicamente por palpación rectal por un profesional de la medicina veterinaria. Los datos fueron analizados mediante la prueba de chi –cuadrado habiendo obtenido un resultado significativo a un nivel de confianza del 95% entre los tratamientos. Con base en los resultados obtenidos posterior al tratamiento de la administración de sales minerales, vitamina y masaje ovárico se alcan zó una respuesta positiva del 80 % al celo, el 80% en tasa de preñez y en relación a la aparición del celo posteri or al tratamiento se alcanzo una media de 6.13 días que al comparar la efectividad del tratamiento de solo la aplicación de masaje ovárico se observo un buen resultado positivo, superando las expectativas. En comparación con las hembras tratadas con solo masaje ovárico se obtuvo una respuesta positiva al celo de un 60%, con un 30% de tasa de preñez y 7.33 días promedio en anestro posterior al tratamiento, por lo tanto elaboramos la hipótesis basándonos en el estadígrafo de Chi-cuadrado obteniendo un resultado significativo empleando un nivel de significancia del 0.05% por lo que atribuimos las diferencias de ambos tratamientos.

Reguladores de crecimiento, L-cisteina y ácido ascórbico en el cultivo in vitro de Mora (Rubus glaucus Benth)

El presente trabajo se llevó a cabo en el laboratorio de cultivo de tejidos vegetales del Programa de Recursos Genéticos Nicaragüen ses (REGEN) de la Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Managua, Nicaragua, con el objetivo de adoptar la técnica de propagación in vitro del cultivo de mora e introducir la variedad Rizaralda. El material vegetal fue traído de la Universidad Nacional de Pereira, Colombia. Los explantes fueron desinfectados y estableci dos en un medio MS semisólido suplementado con 1 mg/l de BAP y 0.3 mg/l de GA 3 . El ensayo se desarrolló en dos fases. En la primera fase (fase de multiplicación) se evaluaron diferentes concentraciones de las fitohormonas BAP y GA 3 ; la vitamina acido ascórbico y el aminoácido (L–cisteina). La combinación hormonal BAP 2.5 mg/l y GA 3 0.03 mg/l fue el mejor tratamiento, lográndose una producción de hijos de 3.13 en promedio. En la segunda fase (enraizamiento) se evaluaron las fitohormonas AIA, IBA y ANA, asi como la consis tencia del medio; obteniéndose un 100 % de plantas enraizadas con un promedio de 6.98 raíces por planta con 1.4 mg/l de IBA en medio semisolido.

Dermatofitosis en caninos procedentes de dos barrios de Managua, atendidos en la clínica Emergencia Veterinaria, agosto – septiembre 2014

El presente estudio de caso, se realizó para la valoración de la presencia de la dermatofitosis en especies caninas, siendo las especies más comunes Microsporum y Trichopyton. El estudio se realizó en la Clínica “Emergencias Veterinarias” ubicada en el casco urbano de Managua” para obtener un diagnóstico definitivo se realizó el diagnóstico clínico tomando en cuenta el historial de los pacientes, sintomatología y lesiones: pústula, pápula, eritema, descamación, costra, alopecia, pelo quebradizo, foliculítis así como factores predisponente: factores ambientales, humedad, ph, edad, raza, sexo, individuo, realizando el diagnóstico por laboratorio en tres pacientes. Las muestras fueron remitidas al laboratorio veterinario con los siguientes estudios clínicos ; Raspado de piel por KoH al 10% Y 20%, determinaron la presencia de estructuras micóticas asociadas a hifas y levaduras en el caso N°1, estructuras asociadas a artrosporas e hifas en el caso N°2, y estructuras asociadas a hifas y levaduras en el caso N°3, además se realizó un control de crecimiento de contaminantes en agar Sabouraud con glucosa al 2%, donde se observó por caracterización macroscópica el crecimiento de contaminantes en mayor abundancia en el caso N°3. Una vez obtenidos los resultados se procesaron las muestras en Dermatofitos Test Medium (Urano Test Dermatofitos) donde se observó que el caso N°1 y caso N°3 dieron negativo a DTM, el caso N°2 resulto ser positivo y se prosiguió a la caracterización microscópica del agente por tinción de contraste, donde se identificó al Microsporum gypseum como el agente causal de la lesión y como factores predisponentes se verificaron los ambientales y la edad del paciente, la aplicación de tratamiento fue de forma tópico y sistémico a través de fungicida o fungistático , baño con clorhexidina y miconazol 1 vez a la semana por 6 semanas , ketoconazol en tableta a una dosis de 10 mg /kg/día por 30 días , dándola en la comida para conseguir un ph gástrico acido, regulador del sistema inmune (caseína) 1 tableta al día por 30 días, vitamina ADɜE intramuscular . Palabras claves: Canino; Dermatofitos; Microsporum; Trichophyton; Raspado de piel; Cultivo micotico.