Beef production and the environment : is it really 'hard to be green when you are in the red'?

The statement. 'it is hard to be green when you are in the red' is commonly used by primary producers to explain the necessity of placing a greater emphasis on financial survival rather than longer term environmental sustainability. The subject of environmental sustainability on pastoral properties was explored during face-to:face interviews with cattle grazers in the Fitzroy Basin area of Central Queensland. Findings from the study suggest that while economic factors are important, they are not the only determinant in whether a landholder priorities environmental sustainability, Rather. social factors such as knowledge claims. beliefs, attitudes. values, peer pressure and social sanctioning, constructed and enacted within the productivist paradigm of primary production. play a crucial role in how landholders manage their natural assets. This suggests that the edict that 'It is hard to be green when you are in the red' is inaccurate and does not explain why conservation-focused pastoral management is not yet occurring on a large scale.

Effect of trash on the coagulation and flocculation of sugarcane juice

The processing of juice expressed from whole green sugarcane crop (stalk and trash) leads to poor clarification performance, reduced sugar yield and poor raw sugar quality. The cause of these adverse effects is linked to the disproportionate contribution of impurities from the trash component of the crop. This paper reports on the zeta (ζ) potential, average size distribution (d50) and fractal dimension (Df) of limed juice particles derived from various juice types using laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering techniques. The influence of non-sucrose impurities on the interactive energy contributions between sugarcane juice particles was examined on the basis of Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. Results from these investigations have provided evidence (in terms of particle stability) on why juice particles derived from whole green sugarcane crop are relatively difficult to coagulate (and flocculate). The presence of trash reduces the van der Waals forces of attraction between particles, thereby reducing coagulation and flocculation processes. It is anticipated that further fundamental work will lead to strategies that could be adopted for clarifying juices expressed from whole green sugarcane crop.

Effect of trash on the coagulation and flocculation of sugarcane juice

The processing of juice expressed from whole green sugarcane crop (stalk and trash) leads to poor clarification performance, reduced sugar yield and poor raw sugar quality. The cause of these adverse effects is linked to the disproportionate contribution of impurities from the trash component of the crop. This paper reports on the zeta (?) potential, average size distribution (d50) and fractal dimension (Df) of limed juice particles derived from various juice types using laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering techniques. The influence of non-sucrose impurities on the interactive energy contributions between sugarcane juice particles was examined on the basis of Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. Results from these investigations have provided evidence (in terms of particle stability) on why juice particles derived from whole green sugarcane crop are relatively difficult to coagulate (and flocculate). The presence of trash reduces the van der Waals forces of attraction between particles, thereby reducing coagulation and flocculation processes. It is anticipated that further fundamental work will lead to strategies that could be adopted for clarifying juices expressed from whole green sugarcane crop.

Characterization of ENU-induced mutations in red blood cell structural proteins

Murine models with modified gene function as a result of N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) mutagenesis have been used to study phenotypes resulting from genetic change. This study investigated genetic factors associated with red blood cell (RBC) physiology and structural integrity that may impact on blood component storage and transfusion outcome. Forward and reverse genetic approaches were employed with pedigrees of ENU-treated mice using a homozygous recessive breeding strategy. In a “forward genetic” approach, pedigree selection was based upon identification of an altered phenotype followed by exome sequencing to identify a causative mutation. In a second strategy, a “reverse genetic” approach based on selection of pedigrees with mutations in genes of interest was utilised and, following breeding to homozygosity, phenotype assessed. Thirty-three pedigrees were screened by the forward genetic approach. One pedigree demonstrated reticulocytosis, microcytic anaemia and thrombocytosis. Exome sequencing revealed a novel single nucleotide variation (SNV) in Ank1 encoding the RBC structural protein ankyrin-1 and the pedigree was designated Ank1EX34. The reticulocytosis and microcytic anaemia observed in the Ank1EX34 pedigree were similar to clinical features of hereditary spherocytosis in humans. For the reverse genetic approach three pedigrees with different point mutations in Spnb1 encoding RBC protein spectrin-1β, and one pedigree with a mutation in Epb4.1, encoding band 4.1 were selected for study. When bred to homozygosity two of the spectrin-1β pedigrees (a, b) demonstrated increased RBC count, haemoglobin (Hb) and haematocrit (HCT). The third Spnb1 mutation (spectrin-1β c) and mutation in Epb4.1 (band 4.1) did not significantly affect the haematological phenotype, despite these two mutations having a PolyPhen score predicting the mutation may be damaging. Exome sequencing allows rapid identification of causative mutations and development of databases of mutations predicted to be disruptive. These tools require further refinement but provide new approaches to the study of genetically defined changes that may impact on blood component storage and transfusion outcome.

An R2R3 MYB transcription factor determines red petal colour in an Actinidia (kiwifruit) hybrid population

Background Red colour in kiwifruit results from the presence of anthocyanin pigments. Their expression, however, is complex, and varies among genotypes, species, tissues and environments. An understanding of the biosynthesis, physiology and genetics of the anthocyanins involved, and the control of their expression in different tissues, is required. A complex, the MBW complex, consisting of R2R3-MYB and bHLH transcription factors together with a WD-repeat protein, activates anthocyanin 3-O-galactosyltransferase (F3GT1) to produce anthocyanins. We examined the expression and genetic control of anthocyanins in flowers of Actinidia hybrid families segregating for red and white petal colour. Results Four inter-related backcross families between Actinidia chinensis Planch. var. chinensis and Actinidia eriantha Benth. were identified that segregated 1:1 for red or white petal colour. Flower pigments consisted of five known anthocyanins (two delphinidin-based and three cyanidin-based) and three unknowns. Intensity and hue differed in red petals from pale pink to deep magenta, and while intensity of colour increased with total concentration of anthocyanin, no association was found between any particular anthocyanin data and hue. Real time qPCR demonstrated that an R2R3 MYB, MYB110a, was expressed at significant levels in red-petalled progeny, but not in individuals with white petals. A microsatellite marker was developed that identified alleles that segregated with red petal colour, but not with ovary, stamen filament, or fruit flesh colour in these families. The marker mapped to chromosome 10 in Actinidia. The white petal phenotype was complemented by syringing Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying Actinidia 35S::MYB110a into the petal tissue. Red pigments developed in white petals both with, and without, co-transformation with Actinidia bHLH partners. MYB110a was shown to directly activate Actinidia F3GT1 in transient assays. Conclusions The transcription factor, MYB110a, regulates anthocyanin production in petals in this hybrid population, but not in other flower tissues or mature fruit. The identification of delphinidin-based anthocyanins in these flowers provides candidates for colour enhancement in novel fruits.

Analysis of genetically modified red-fleshed apples reveals effects on growth and consumer attributes

Consumers of whole foods, such as fruits, demand consistent high quality and seek varieties with enhanced health properties, convenience or novel taste. We have raised the polyphenolic content of apple by genetic engineering of the anthocyanin pathway using the apple transcription factor MYB10. These apples have very high concentrations of foliar, flower and fruit anthocyanins, especially in the fruit peel. Independent lines were examined for impacts on tree growth, photosynthesis and fruit characteristics. Fruit were analysed for changes in metabolite and transcript levels. Fruit were also used in taste trials to study the consumer perception of such a novel apple. No negative taste attributes were associated with the elevated anthocyanins. Modification with this one gene provides near isogenic material and allows us to examine the effects on an established cultivar, with a view to enhancing consumer appeal independently of other fruit qualities. © 2012 Society for Experimental Biology, Association of Applied Biologists and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

An ancient duplication of apple MYB transcription factors is responsible for novel red fruit-flesh phenotyp

Anthocyanin accumulation is coordinated in plants by a number of conserved transcription factors. In apple (Malus × domestica), an R2R3 MYB transcription factor has been shown to control fruit flesh and foliage anthocyanin pigmentation (MYB10) and fruit skin color (MYB1). However, the pattern of expression and allelic variation at these loci does not explain all anthocyanin-related apple phenotypes. One such example is an open-pollinated seedling of cv Sangrado that has green foliage and develops red flesh in the fruit cortex late in maturity. We used methods that combine plant breeding, molecular biology, and genomics to identify duplicated MYB transcription factors that could control this phenotype. We then demonstrated that the red-flesh cortex phenotype is associated with enhanced expression of MYB110a, a paralog of MYB10. Functional characterization of MYB110a showed that it was able to up-regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). The chromosomal location of MYB110a is consistent with a whole-genome duplication event that occurred during the evolution of apple within the Maloideae family. Both MYB10 and MYB110a have conserved function in some cultivars, but they differ in their expression pattern and response to fruit maturity.

Mapping a candidate gene (MdMYB10) for red flesh and foliage colour in apple

BACKGROUND Integrating plant genomics and classical breeding is a challenge for both plant breeders and molecular biologists. Marker-assisted selection (MAS) is a tool that can be used to accelerate the development of novel apple varieties such as cultivars that have fruit with anthocyanin through to the core. In addition, determining the inheritance of novel alleles, such as the one responsible for red flesh, adds to our understanding of allelic variation. Our goal was to map candidate anthocyanin biosynthetic and regulatory genes in a population segregating for the red flesh phenotypes. RESULTS We have identified the Rni locus, a major genetic determinant of the red foliage and red colour in the core of apple fruit. In a population segregating for the red flesh and foliage phenotype we have determined the inheritance of the Rni locus and DNA polymorphisms of candidate anthocyanin biosynthetic and regulatory genes. Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) in the candidate genes were also located on an apple genetic map. We have shown that the MdMYB10 gene co-segregates with the Rni locus and is on Linkage Group (LG) 09 of the apple genome. CONCLUSION We have performed candidate gene mapping in a fruit tree crop and have provided genetic evidence that red colouration in the fruit core as well as red foliage are both controlled by a single locus named Rni. We have shown that the transcription factor MdMYB10 may be the gene underlying Rni as there were no recombinants between the marker for this gene and the red phenotype in a population of 516 individuals. Associating markers derived from candidate genes with a desirable phenotypic trait has demonstrated the application of genomic tools in a breeding programme of a horticultural crop species.

Effect of strong acids on red mud structural and fluoride adsorption properties

The removal of fluoride using red mud has been improved by acidifying red mud with hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acid. This investigation shows that the removal of fluoride using red mud is significantly improved if red mud is initially acidified. The acidification of red mud causes sodalite and cancrinite phases to dissociate, confirmed by the release of sodium and aluminium into solution as well as the disappearance of sodalite bands and peaks in infrared and X-ray diffraction data. The dissolution of these mineral phases increases the amount of available iron and aluminium oxide/hydroxide sites that are accessible for the adsorption of fluoride. The removal of fluoride is dependent on the charge of iron and aluminium oxide/hydroxides on the surface of red mud. Acidifying red mud with hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acid resulted in surface sites of the form ≡ SOH2+ and ≡ SOH. Optimum removal is obtained when the majority of surface sites are in the form ≡ SOH2+ as the substitution of a fluoride ion doesn’t cause a significant increase in pH. This investigation shows the importance of having a low and consistent pH for the removal of fluoride from aqueous solutions using red mud.

Identification and characterisation of F3GT1 and F3GGT1, two glycosyltransferases responsible for anthocyanin biosynthesis in red-fleshed kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis)

Much of the diversity of anthocyanins is due to the action of glycosyltransferases, which add sugar moieties to anthocyanidins. We identified two glycosyltransferases, F3GT1 and F3GGT1, from red-fleshed kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) that perform sequential glycosylation steps. Red-fleshed genotypes of kiwifruit accumulate anthocyanins mainly in the form of cyanidin 3-O-xylo-galactoside. Genes in the anthocyanin and flavonoid biosynthetic pathway were identified and shown to be expressed in fruit tissue. However, only the expression of the glycosyltransferase F3GT1 was correlated with anthocyanin accumulation in red tissues. Recombinant enzyme assays in vitro and in vivo RNA interference (RNAi) demonstrated the role of F3GT1 in the production of cyanidin 3-O-galactoside. F3GGT1 was shown to further glycosylate the sugar moiety of the anthocyanins. This second glycosylation can affect the solubility and stability of the pigments and modify their colour. We show that recombinant F3GGT1 can catalyse the addition of UDP-xylose to cyanidin 3-galactoside. While F3GGT1 is responsible for the end-product of the pathway, F3GT1 is likely to be the key enzyme regulating the accumulation of anthocyanin in red-fleshed kiwifruit varieties.

Red colouration in apple fruit is due to the activity of the MYB transcription factor, MdMYB10

Anthocyanin concentration is an important determinant of the colour of many fruits. In apple (Malus x domestica), centuries of breeding have produced numerous varieties in which levels of anthocyanin pigment vary widely and change in response to environmental and developmental stimuli. The apple fruit cortex is usually colourless, although germplasm does exist where the cortex is highly pigmented due to the accumulation of either anthocyanins or carotenoids. From studies in a diverse array of plant species, it is apparent that anthocyanin biosynthesis is controlled at the level of transcription. Here we report the transcript levels of the anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in a red-fleshed apple compared with a white-fleshed cultivar. We also describe an apple MYB transcription factor, MdMYB10, that is similar in sequence to known anthocyanin regulators in other species. We further show that this transcription factor can induce anthocyanin accumulation in both heterologous and homologous systems, generating pigmented patches in transient assays in tobacco leaves and highly pigmented apple plants following stable transformation with constitutively expressed MdMYB10. Efficient induction of anthocyanin biosynthesis in transient assays by MdMYB10 was dependent on the co-expression of two distinct bHLH proteins from apple, MdbHLH3 and MdbHLH33. The strong correlation between the expression of MdMYB10 and apple anthocyanin levels during fruit development suggests that this transcription factor is responsible for controlling anthocyanin biosynthesis in apple fruit; in the red-fleshed cultivar and in the skin of other varieties, there is an induction of MdMYB10 expression concurrent with colour formation during development. Characterization of MdMYB10 has implications for the development of new varieties through classical breeding or a biotechnological approach.

Multiple repeats of a promoter segment causes transcription factor autoregulation in red apples

Mutations in the genes encoding for either the biosynthetic or transcriptional regulation of the anthocyanin pathway have been linked to color phenotypes. Generally, this is a loss of function resulting in a reduction or a change in the distribution of anthocyanin. Here, we describe a rearrangement in the upstream regulatory region of the gene encoding an apple (Malus x domestica) anthocyanin-regulating transcription factor, MYB10. We show that this modification is responsible for increasing the level of anthocyanin throughout the plant to produce a striking phenotype that includes red foliage and red fruit flesh. This rearrangement is a series of multiple repeats, forming a minisatellite-like structure that comprises five direct tandem repeats of a 23-bp sequence. This MYB10 rearrangement is present in all the red foliage apple varieties and species tested but in none of the white fleshed varieties. Transient assays demonstrated that the 23-bp sequence motif is a target of the MYB10 protein itself, and the number of repeat units correlates with an increase in transactivation by MYB10 protein. We show that the repeat motif is capable of binding MYB10 protein in electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Taken together, these results indicate that an allelic rearrangement in the promoter of MYB10 has generated an autoregulatory locus, and this autoregulation is sufficient to account for the increase in MYB10 transcript levels and subsequent ectopic accumulation of anthocyanins throughout the plant.

Environmental regulation of leaf colour in red 35S : PAP1 Arabidopsis thaliana

High-temperature, low-light (HTLL) treatment of 35S:PAP1 Arabidopsis thaliana over-expressing the PAP1 (Production of Anthocyanin Pigment 1) gene results in reversible reduction of red colouration, suggesting the action of additional anthocyanin regulators. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS) and Affimetrix®-based microarrays were used to measure changes in anthocyanin, flavonoids, and gene expression in response to HTLL. HTLL treatment of control and 35S:PAP1 A. thaliana resulted in a reversible reduction in the concentrations of major anthocyanins despite ongoing over-expression of the PAP1 MYB transcription factor. Twenty-one anthocyanins including eight cis-coumaryl esters were identified by LCMS. The concentrations of nine anthocyanins were reduced and those of three were increased, consistent with a sequential process of anthocyanin degradation. Analysis of gene expression showed down-regulation of flavonol and anthocyanin biosynthesis and of transport-related genes within 24 h of HTLL treatment. No catabolic genes up-regulated by HTLL were found. Reductions in the concentrations of anthocyanins and down-regulation of the genes of anthocyanin biosynthesis were achieved by environmental manipulation, despite ongoing over-expression of PAP1. Quantitative PCR showed reduced expression of three genes (TT8, TTG1 and EGL3) of the PAP1 transcriptional complex, and increased expression of the potential transcriptional repressors AtMYB3, AtMYB6 and AtMYBL2 coincided with HTLL-induced down-regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis. HTLL treatment offers a model system with which to explore anthocyanin catabolism and to discover novel genes involved in the environmental control of anthocyanins.

Characterisation of red mud and seawater neutralised red mud using vibrational spectroscopic techniques

Bauxite refinery residues are derived from the Bayer process by the digestion of crushed bauxite in concentrated caustic at elevated temperatures. Chemically, it comprises, in varying amounts (depending upon the composition of the starting bauxite), oxides of iron and titanium, residual alumina, sodalite, silica, and minor quantities of other metal oxides. Bauxite residues are being neutralised by seawater in recent years to reduce the alkalinity in bauxite residue, through the precipitation of hydrotalcite-like compounds and some other Mg, Ca, and Al hydroxide and carbonate minerals. A combination of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and vibrational spectroscopy techniques, including mid-infrared (IR), Raman, near-infrared (NIR), and UV-Visible, have been used to characterise bauxite residue and seawater neutralised bauxite residue. Both the ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe3+) ions within bauxite residue can be identified by their characteristic NIR bands, where ferrous ions produce a strong absorption band at around 9000 cm-1, while ferric ions produce two strong bands at 25000 and 14300 cm-1. The presence of adsorbed carbonate and hydroxide anions can be identified at around 5200 and 7000 cm-1, respectively, attributed to the 2nd overtone of the 1st fundamental overtones observed in the mid-IR spectra. The complex bands in the Raman and mid-IR spectra around 3500 cm-1 are assigned to the OH stretching vibrations of the various oxides present in bauxite residue, and water. The combination of carbonate and hydroxyl units and their fundamental overtones give rise to many of the features of the NIR spectra.

Impact of a change in tillage and crop residue management practice on soil chemical and microbiological properties in a cereal-producing red duplex soil in NSW, Australia

The effect of a change of tillage and crop residue management practice on the chemical and micro-biological properties of a cereal-producing red duplex soil was investigated by superimposing each of three management practices (CC: conventional cultivation, stubble burnt, crop conventionally sown; DD: direct-drilling, stubble retained, no cultivation, crop direct-drilled; SI: stubble incorporated with a single cultivation, crop conventionally sown), for a 3-year period on plots previously managed with each of the same three practices for 14 years. A change from DD to CC or SI practice resulted in a significant decline, in the top 0-5 cm of soil, in organic C, total N, electrical conductivity, NH4-N, NO3-N, soil moisture holding capacity, microbial biomass and CO2 respiration as well as a decline in the microbial quotient (the ratio of microbial biomass C to organic C; P <0.05). In contrast, a change from SI to DD or CC practice or a change from CC to DD or SI practice had only negligible impact on soil chemical properties (P >0.05). However, there was a significant increase in microbial biomass and the microbial quotient in the top 0-5 cm of soil following the change from CC to DD or SI practice and with the change from SI to DD practice (P <0.05). Analysis of ester-linked fatty acid methyl esters (EL-FAMEs) extracted from the 0- to 5-cm and 5- to 10-cm layers of the soils of the various treatments detected changes in the FAME profiles following a change in tillage practice. A change from DD practice to SI or CC practice was associated with a significant decline in the ratio of fungal to bacterial fatty acids in the 0- to 5-cm soil (P <0.05). The results show that a change in tillage practice, particularly the cultivation of a previously minimum-tilled (direct-drilled) soil, will result in significant changes in soil chemical and microbiological properties within a 3-year period. They also show that soil microbiological properties are sensitive indicators of a change in tillage practice.