Effects of treatment, awareness and condom use in a coinfection model for HIV and HCV in MSM

We develop a new a coinfection model for hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). We consider treatment for both diseases, screening, unawareness and awareness of HIV infection, and the use of condoms. We study the local stability of the disease-free equilibria for the full model and for the two submodels (HCV only and HIV only submodels). We sketch bifurcation diagrams for different parameters, such as the probabilities that a contact will result in a HIV or an HCV infection. We present numerical simulations of the full model where the HIV, HCV and double endemic equilibria can be observed. We also show numerically the qualitative changes of the dynamical behavior of the full model for variation of relevant parameters. We extrapolate the results from the model for actual measures that could be implemented in order to reduce the number of infected individuals.

Viabilidade Técnica e Económica das Diferentes Tecnologias de Microprodução

Sabendo que as energias de origem fóssil não são inesgotáveis e que afetam a qualidade do ambiente, nos últimos anos, o interesse pelas energias renováveis mereceu a atenção de ambientalistas e de governantes. Para diminuir a importação de energia, o próprio governo de Portugal incentivou, através de medidas legislativas diversas, a instalação de sistemas alternativos de produção elétrica. Face à pertinência desta matéria, a dissertação, Viabilidade Técnica e Económica das Diferentes Tecnologias de Microprodução, aborda o aproveitamento de energias renováveis através de tecnologias de Microprodução ligadas à rede elétrica. Nesta dissertação, numa primeira fase, apresentam-se os sistemas de microprodução existentes no mercado, descrevem-se os componentes que os constituem e destacam-se os aspetos legislativos aplicáveis. Numa segunda fase, com o objetivo de suportar a elaboração de uma ferramenta informática para apoio na escolha de equipamentos de microprodução, procede-se à análise financeira de tecnologias de microprodução, indicando os modelos matemáticos necessários. Um dos objetivos da dissertação, consiste na construção de uma ferramenta informática de cálculo e na sua aplicação a dois estudos de caso. Esse programa informático foi elaborado em Excel e é capaz de fornecer uma estimativa da produção de energia anual e da avaliação da viabilidade técnico-económica de cada tecnologia e pretende apoiar a decisão do investidor em tecnologias de microprodução. Tendo sido realizados dois estudos de caso - um edifício habitacional unifamiliar e um edifício Industrial – foi possível verificar o funcionamento da aplicação e a sua utilidade na determinação da solução mais vantajosa na escolha de uma tecnologia de microprodução, uma vez que, introduzidos os dados adequados, são gerados os cálculos que permitem fornecer uma visão de conjunto, possibilitando a comparação das diferentes propostas.

Estudo e análise do sequenciamento de tarefas de produção: job shop scheduling

Esta dissertação apresenta um estudo sobre os problemas de sequenciamento de tarefas de produção do tipo job shop scheduling. Os problemas de sequenciamento de tarefas de produção pretendem encontrar a melhor sequência para o processamento de uma lista de tarefas, o instante de início e término de cada tarefa e a afetação de máquinas para as tarefas. Entre estes, encontram-se os problemas com máquinas paralelas, os problemas job shop e flow shop. As medidas de desempenho mais comuns são o makespan (instante de término da execução de todas as tarefas), o tempo de fluxo total, a soma dos atrasos (tardiness), o atraso máximo, o número de tarefas que são completadas após a data limite, entre outros. Num problema do tipo job shop, as tarefas (jobs) consistem num conjunto de operações que têm de ser executadas numa máquina pré-determinada, obedecendo a um determinado sequenciamento com tempos pré-definidos. Estes ambientes permitem diferentes cenários de sequenciamento das tarefas. Normalmente, não são permitidas interrupções no processamento das tarefas (preemption) e pode ainda ser necessário considerar tempos de preparação dependentes da sequência (sequence dependent setup times) ou atribuir pesos (prioridades) diferentes em função da importância da tarefa ou do cliente. Pretende-se o estudo dos modelos matemáticos existentes para várias variantes dos problemas de sequenciamento de tarefas do tipo job shop e a comparação dos resultados das diversas medidas de desempenho da produção. Este trabalho contribui para demonstrar a importância que um bom sequenciamento da produção pode ter na sua eficiência e consequente impacto financeiro.

ORIGIN AND PREVALENCE OF HUMAN T-LYMPHOTROPIC VIRUS TYPE 1 (HTLV-1) AND TYPE 2 (HTLV-2) AMONG INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS IN THE AMERICAS

Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is found in indigenous peoples of the Pacific Islands and the Americas, whereas type 2 (HTLV-2) is widely distributed among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, where it appears to be more prevalent than HTLV-1, and in some tribes of Central Africa. HTLV-2 is considered ancestral in the Americas and is transmitted to the general population and injection drug users from the indigenous population. In the Americas, HTLV-1 has more than one origin, being brought by immigrants in the Paleolithic period through the Bering Strait, through slave trade during the colonial period, and through Japanese immigration from the early 20th century, whereas HTLV-2 was only brought by immigrants through the Bering Strait. The endemicity of HTLV-2 among the indigenous people of Brazil makes the Brazilian Amazon the largest endemic area in the world for its occurrence. A review of HTLV-1 in all Brazilian tribes supports the African origin of HTLV-1 in Brazil. The risk of hyperendemicity in these epidemiologically closed populations and transmission to other populations reinforces the importance of public health interventions for HTLV control, including the recognition of the infection among reportable diseases and events.

MAC regenerative analysis of wireless Ad-Hoc networks

Dissertação apresentada na Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Electrotécnica e de Computadores

Modelling and Forecasting Mortality Patterns

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Statistics and Information Management

Métodos estatísticos aplicados à modelação de dados oncológicos

RESUMO: A estrutura demográfica portuguesa é marcada por baixas taxas de natalidade e mortalidade, onde a população idosa representa uma fatia cada vez mais representativa, fruto de uma maior longevidade. A incidência do cancro, na sua generalidade, é maior precisamente nessa classe etária. A par de outras doenças igualmente lesivas (e.g. cardiovasculares, degenerativas) cuja incidência aumenta com a idade, o cancro merece relevo. Estudos epidemiológicos apresentam o cancro como líder mundial na mortalidade. Em países desenvolvidos, o seu peso representa 25% do número total de óbitos, percentagem essa que mais que duplica noutros países. A obesidade, a baixa ingestão de frutas e vegetais, o sedentarismo, o consumo de tabaco e a ingestão de álcool, configuram-se como cinco dos fatores de risco presentes em 30% das mortes diagnosticadas por cancro. A nível mundial e, em particular no Sul de Portugal, os cancros do estômago, recto e cólon apresentam elevadas taxas de incidência e de mortalidade. Do ponto de vista estritamente económico, o cancro é a doença que mais recursos consome enquanto que do ponto de vista físico e psicológico é uma doença que não limita o seu raio de ação ao doente. O cancro é, portanto, uma doença sempre atual e cada vez mais presente, pois reflete os hábitos e o ambiente de uma sociedade, não obstante as características intrínsecas a cada indivíduo. A adoção de metodologia estatística aplicada à modelação de dados oncológicos é, sobretudo, valiosa e pertinente quando a informação é oriunda de Registos de Cancro de Base Populacional (RCBP). A pertinência é justificada pelo fato destes registos permitirem aferir numa população específica, o risco desta sofrer e/ou vir a sofrer de uma dada neoplasia. O peso que as neoplasias do estômago, cólon e recto assumem foi um dos elementos que motivou o presente estudo que tem por objetivo analisar tendências, projeções, sobrevivências relativas e a distribuição espacial destas neoplasias. Foram considerados neste estudo todos os casos diagnosticados no período 1998-2006, pelo RCBP da região sul de Portugal (ROR-Sul). O estudo descritivo inicial das taxas de incidência e da tendência em cada uma das referidas neoplasias teve como base uma única variável temporal - o ano de diagnóstico - também designada por período. Todavia, uma metodologia que contemple apenas uma única variável temporal é limitativa. No cancro, para além do período, a idade à data do diagnóstico e a coorte de nascimento, são variáveis temporais que poderão prestar um contributo adicional na caracterização das taxas de incidência. A relevância assumida por estas variáveis temporais justificou a sua inclusão numaclasse de modelos designada por modelos Idade-Período-Coorte (Age-Period-Cohort models - APC), utilizada na modelação das taxas de incidência para as neoplasias em estudo. Os referidos modelos permitem ultrapassar o problema de relações não lineares e/ou de mudanças súbitas na tendência linear das taxas. Nos modelos APC foram consideradas a abordagem clássica e a abordagem com recurso a funções suavizadoras. A modelação das taxas foi estratificada por sexo. Foram ainda estudados os respectivos submodelos (apenas com uma ou duas variáveis temporais). Conhecido o comportamento das taxas de incidência, uma questão subsequente prende-se com a sua projeção em períodos futuros. Porém, o efeito de mudanças estruturais na população, ao qual Portugal não é alheio, altera substancialmente o número esperado de casos futuros com cancro. Estimativas da incidência de cancro a nível mundial obtidas a partir de projeções demográficas apontam para um aumento de 25% dos casos de cancro nas próximas duas décadas. Embora a projeção da incidência esteja associada a alguma incerteza, as projeções auxiliam no planeamento de políticas de saúde para a afetação de recursos e permitem a avaliação de cenários e de intervenções que tenham como objetivo a redução do impacto do cancro. O desconhecimento de projeções da taxa de incidência destas neoplasias na área abrangida pelo ROR-Sul, levou à utilização de modelos de projeção que diferem entre si quanto à sua estrutura, linearidade (ou não) dos seus coeficientes e comportamento das taxas na série histórica de dados (e.g. crescente, decrescente ou estável). Os referidos modelos pautaram-se por duas abordagens: (i)modelos lineares no que concerne ao tempo e (ii) extrapolação de efeitos temporais identificados pelos modelos APC para períodos futuros. Foi feita a projeção das taxas de incidência para os anos de 2007 a 2010 tendo em conta o género, idade e neoplasia. É ainda apresentada uma estimativa do impacto económico destas neoplasias no período de projeção. Uma questão pertinente e habitual no contexto clínico e a que o presente estudo pretende dar resposta, reside em saber qual a contribuição da neoplasia em si para a sobrevivência do doente. Nesse sentido, a mortalidade por causa específica é habitualmente utilizada para estimar a mortalidade atribuível apenas ao cancro em estudo. Porém, existem muitas situações em que a causa de morte é desconhecida e, mesmo que esta informação esteja disponível através dos certificados de óbito, não é fácil distinguir os casos em que a principal causa de morte é devida ao cancro. A sobrevivência relativa surge como uma medida objetiva que não necessita do conhecimento da causa específica da morte para o seu cálculo e dar-nos-á uma estimativa da probabilidade de sobrevivência caso o cancro em análise, num cenário hipotético, seja a única causa de morte. Desconhecida a principal causa de morte nos casos diagnosticados com cancro no registo ROR-Sul, foi determinada a sobrevivência relativa para cada uma das neoplasias em estudo, para um período de follow-up de 5 anos, tendo em conta o sexo, a idade e cada uma das regiões que constituem o registo. Foi adotada uma análise por período e as abordagens convencional e por modelos. No epílogo deste estudo, é analisada a influência da variabilidade espaço-temporal nas taxas de incidência. O longo período de latência das doenças oncológicas, a dificuldade em identificar mudanças súbitas no comportamento das taxas, populações com dimensão e riscos reduzidos, são alguns dos elementos que dificultam a análise da variação temporal das taxas. Nalguns casos, estas variações podem ser reflexo de flutuações aleatórias. O efeito da componente temporal aferida pelos modelos APC dá-nos um retrato incompleto da incidência do cancro. A etiologia desta doença, quando conhecida, está associada com alguma frequência a fatores de risco tais como condições socioeconómicas, hábitos alimentares e estilo de vida, atividade profissional, localização geográfica e componente genética. O “contributo”, dos fatores de risco é, por vezes, determinante e não deve ser ignorado. Surge, assim, a necessidade em complementar o estudo temporal das taxas com uma abordagem de cariz espacial. Assim, procurar-se-á aferir se as variações nas taxas de incidência observadas entre os concelhos inseridos na área do registo ROR-Sul poderiam ser explicadas quer pela variabilidade temporal e geográfica quer por fatores socioeconómicos ou, ainda, pelos desiguais estilos de vida. Foram utilizados os Modelos Bayesianos Hierárquicos Espaço-Temporais com o objetivo de identificar tendências espaço-temporais nas taxas de incidência bem como quantificar alguns fatores de risco ajustados à influência simultânea da região e do tempo. Os resultados obtidos pela implementação de todas estas metodologias considera-se ser uma mais valia para o conhecimento destas neoplasias em Portugal.------------ABSTRACT: mortality rates, with the elderly being an increasingly representative sector of the population, mainly due to greater longevity. The incidence of cancer, in general, is greater precisely in that age group. Alongside with other equally damaging diseases (e.g. cardiovascular,degenerative), whose incidence rates increases with age, cancer is of special note. In epidemiological studies, cancer is the global leader in mortality. In developed countries its weight represents 25% of the total number of deaths, with this percentage being doubled in other countries. Obesity, a reduce consumption of fruit and vegetables, physical inactivity, smoking and alcohol consumption, are the five risk factors present in 30% of deaths due to cancer. Globally, and in particular in the South of Portugal, the stomach, rectum and colon cancer have high incidence and mortality rates. From a strictly economic perspective, cancer is the disease that consumes more resources, while from a physical and psychological point of view, it is a disease that is not limited to the patient. Cancer is therefore na up to date disease and one of increased importance, since it reflects the habits and the environment of a society, regardless the intrinsic characteristics of each individual. The adoption of statistical methodology applied to cancer data modelling is especially valuable and relevant when the information comes from population-based cancer registries (PBCR). In such cases, these registries allow for the assessment of the risk and the suffering associated to a given neoplasm in a specific population. The weight that stomach, colon and rectum cancers assume in Portugal was one of the motivations of the present study, that focus on analyzing trends, projections, relative survival and spatial distribution of these neoplasms. The data considered in this study, are all cases diagnosed between 1998 and 2006, by the PBCR of Portugal, ROR-Sul.Only year of diagnosis, also called period, was the only time variable considered in the initial descriptive analysis of the incidence rates and trends for each of the three neoplasms considered. However, a methodology that only considers one single time variable will probably fall short on the conclusions that could be drawn from the data under study. In cancer, apart from the variable period, the age at diagnosis and the birth cohort are also temporal variables and may provide an additional contribution to the characterization of the incidence. The relevance assumed by these temporal variables justified its inclusion in a class of models called Age-Period-Cohort models (APC). This class of models was used for the analysis of the incidence rates of the three cancers under study. APC models allow to model nonlinearity and/or sudden changes in linear relationships of rate trends. Two approaches of APC models were considered: the classical and the one using smoothing functions. The models were stratified by gender and, when justified, further studies explored other sub-models where only one or two temporal variables were considered. After the analysis of the incidence rates, a subsequent goal is related to their projections in future periods. Although the effect of structural changes in the population, of which Portugal is not oblivious, may substantially change the expected number of future cancer cases, the results of these projections could help planning health policies with the proper allocation of resources, allowing for the evaluation of scenarios and interventions that aim to reduce the impact of cancer in a population. Worth noting that cancer incidence worldwide obtained from demographic projections point out to an increase of 25% of cancer cases in the next two decades. The lack of projections of incidence rates of the three cancers under study in the area covered by ROR-Sul, led us to use a variety of forecasting models that differ in the nature and structure. For example, linearity or nonlinearity in their coefficients and the trend of the incidence rates in historical data series (e.g. increasing, decreasing or stable).The models followed two approaches: (i) linear models regarding time and (ii) extrapolation of temporal effects identified by the APC models for future periods. The study provide incidence rates projections and the numbers of newly diagnosed cases for the year, 2007 to 2010, taking into account gender, age and the type of cancer. In addition, an estimate of the economic impact of these neoplasms is presented for the projection period considered. This research also try to address a relevant and common clinical question in these type of studies, regarding the contribution of the type of cancer to the patient survival. In such studies, the primary cause of death is commonly used to estimate the mortality specifically due to the cancer. However, there are many situations in which the cause of death is unknown, or, even if this information is available through the death certificates, it is not easy to distinguish the cases where the primary cause of death is the cancer. With this in mind, the relative survival is an alternative measure that does not need the knowledge of the specific cause of death to be calculated. This estimate will represent the survival probability in the hypothetical scenario of a certain cancer be the only cause of death. For the patients with unknown cause of death that were diagnosed with cancer in the ROR-Sul, the relative survival was calculated for each of the cancers under study, for a follow-up period of 5 years, considering gender, age and each one of the regions that are part the registry. A period analysis was undertaken, considering both the conventional and the model approaches. In final part of this study, we analyzed the influence of space-time variability in the incidence rates. The long latency period of oncologic diseases, the difficulty in identifying subtle changes in the rates behavior, populations of reduced size and low risk are some of the elements that can be a challenge in the analysis of temporal variations in rates, that, in some cases, can reflect simple random fluctuations. The effect of the temporal component measured by the APC models gives an incomplete picture of the cancer incidence. The etiology of this disease, when known, is frequently associated to risk factors such as socioeconomic conditions, eating habits and lifestyle, occupation, geographic location and genetic component. The "contribution"of such risk factors is sometimes decisive in the evolution of the disease and should not be ignored. Therefore, there was the need to consider an additional approach in this study, one of spatial nature, addressing the fact that changes in incidence rates observed in the ROR-Sul area, could be explained either by temporal and geographical variability or by unequal socio-economic or lifestyle factors. Thus, Bayesian hierarchical space-time models were used with the purpose of identifying space-time trends in incidence rates together with the the analysis of the effect of the risk factors considered in the study. The results obtained and the implementation of all these methodologies are considered to be an added value to the knowledge of these neoplasms in Portugal.

Strategic planning of electricity systems: Integrating renewable energies

Tese de Doutoramento - Programa Doutoral em Engenharia Industrial e Sistemas (PDEIS)

Numerical modeling and assessment of the thermal environment in an industrial premise of automotive components

Dissertação de mestrado em Engenharia Industrial

Fundamental concepts in multibody dynamics

In this chapter, the fundamental ingredients related to formulation of the equations of motion for multibody systems are described. In particular, aspects such as degrees of freedom, types of coordinates, basic kinematics joints and types of analysis in multibody systems are briefly characterized. Illustrative examples of application are also presented to better clarify the fundamental issues for spatial rigid multibody systems, which are of crucial importance in the formulation development of mathematical models of mechanical systems, as well as its computational implementation.

Mejoramiento del comportamiento térmico de sistemas de calentamiento de agua solares termosifónicos hechos con materiales no convencionales y con tanques de almacenamiento verticales y horizontales Performance improvement of solar thermosyphonic systems for water heating made of non conventional materials and using horizontal and vertical storage tanks

El objeto de estudio de este proyecto son los sistemas de calentamiento de agua mediante energía solar que funcionan termosifónicamente. En particular se tratará con dos diseños particulares generados por fabricantes de la Provincia de Córdoba y que han solicitado el asesoramiento del Grupo de Energía Solar (GES) para el mejoramiento de la performance térmica de dichos equipos. Se trata de dos sistemas que tienen materiales no tradicionales y se diferencian además por tener una distinta disposición del tanque de almacenamiento: uno es en forma vertical y el otro en forma horizontal. Basados en los resultados de un ensayo bajo norma internacional, donde se detectaron algunas puntos factibles de mejora, se propone en este proyecto el análisis en detalle de los equipos, para lo cual se les debe desarmar completos, para realizar un estudio analítico y experimental de los mismos con el objeto de hacer un planteo teórico-analítico del comportamiento de los mismos, con la implementación de propuestas de mejora y chequeo de los resultados. Se propone entonces como objetivo lograr un mejoramiento de la performance térmica de los citados equipos a partir de un estudio experimental y analítico. Asumiendo esta posibilidad de mejora, se plantea la hipótesis de que es posible representar el funcionamiento de estos equipos mediante modelos físico-matemáticos desarrollados a partir de ecuaciones y correlaciones conocidas y procesos a interpretar mediante resoluciones numéricas y softwares específicos de simulación. De esta manera, se plantea el despieze completo de los equipos para estudiar en detalle su estructura y conexiones internas y a partir de la geometría, dimensiones y propiedades termofísicas de materiales constructivos y fluidos de trabajo, realizar modelos físico-matemáticos que permitan realizar variaciones de propiedades y geometría y así buscar las mejores combinaciones que produzcan equipos más eficientes térmicamente. Los modelos físico-matemáticos serán codificados en lenguajes de alto nivel para poder luego de una validación de los modelos, correr simulaciones en un software de reconocimiento internacional que permite sumar dichos modelos mediante un protocolo de comunicación, haciendo que las poderosas prestaciones del software se puedan aplicar a nuestros modelos. Se complementará el estudio con un análisis exergético para identificar los puntos críticos en que se producen las pérdidas de oportunidad de aprovechar la energía disponible, para así analizar cómo solucionar los problemas en dichos puntos. Los materiales a utilizar serán los propios equipos provistos por los fabricantes, que serán modificados convenientemente para operarlos como prototipos Se espera obtener un conocimiento acabado de los procesos y principios de funcionamiento de los equipos, que permita plantear las mejoras, las cuales se implementarán en los prototipos, realizándose una medición mediante norma igual a la inicial para ver en que magnitud se logran las mejoras esperadas. Se pretende además que las mejoras a implementar, en la etapa de transferencia a las empresas involucradas, redunden no sólo en un beneficio técnico, sino que también los sea desde el punto de vista económico. Para ello se trabajará también sobre los procesos y métodos de fabricación para que los equipos mejorados no sean mas caros que los originales y de ser posible sean aún más económicos, todo esto apuntando a la difusión de la energía solar térmica y poner al alcance de todos estos equipos tan convenientes para la propagación de las energías limpias. El proyecto redundará también en un importante beneficio para el conocimiento de la comunidad científica en general, con el aporte de nuevos resultados en diseños novedosos y con nuevos materiales. Además, la institución se beneficiará con la formación que obtendrán los integrantes del proyecto, muchos de ellos en etapa de realización de sus estudios de posgrado y en una etapa importante de su vida como investigadores. The main goal of this project is the improvement of two thermosyphonic solar water heating systems, made of non conventional materials and with different arrangement of their storage tanks: one is vertical and the other one horizontal. The thermosyphonic systems are provided by manufacturers of the Córdoba Province, who came to the Solar Energy Group (GES) of the National University of Río Cuarto looking for help for the design of their products. In an agreement with these manufacturers, it was proposed this project in order to work analytically and experimentally in order to obtain physical-mathematical models of these two systems, which allow for changes to look by means of simulations the best changes to implement on the equipments for the improvement of their thermal performance. Then, the materials to be used are the proper systems provided by the manufacturers, which will be disarmed to be studied in detail. After the analytical study the proposals of improvement will be implemented in a high level language of programming to perform simulations in the environment of a well-known software for energy simulations (TRNSYS). After the simulations, the best modifications will be physically implemented in the prototypes to perform finally the same normalized test of the beginning and check the magnitude of the implemented improvements. The importance of this project is based on the offer of better systems the companies would make, which would benefit the deployment of the thermal solar energy. Another relevant point is to make the new equipments at the same cost of the previous ones or cheaper, in order to achieve a good deployment of the solar water heating systems; then, the manufacture processes and methods must be studied to obtain not only good technical solutions, but also economical equipments. In addition, this project will contribute to the increasing of the knowledge in the area of thermosyphonic solar systems and the training of postgraduate students.

Bases para o estudo da genética de populações dos Hymenoptera em geral e dos Apinae sociais em particular

This paper deals with problems on population genetics in Hymenoptera and particularly in social Apidae. 1) The studies on populations of Hymenoptera were made according to the two basic types of reproduction: endogamy and panmixia. The populations of social Apinae have a mixed method of reproduction with higher percentage of panmixia and a lower of endogamy. This is shown by the following a) males can enter any hive in swarming time; b) males of Meliponini are expelled from hives which does not need them, and thus, are forced to look for some other place; c) Meliponini males were seen powdering themselves with pollen, thus becoming more acceptable in any other hive. The panmixia is not complete owing to the fact that the density of the breeding population as very low, even in the more frequent species as low as about 2 females and 160 males per reproductive area. We adopted as selection values (or survival indices) the expressions according to Brieger (1948,1950) which may be summarised as follows; a population: p2AA + ²pq Aa + q2aa became after selection: x p2AA + 2pq Aa + z q²aa. For alge-braics facilities Brieger divided the three selective values by y giving thus: x/y p2 AA + y/y 2 pq Aa + z/y q²aa. He called x/y of RA and z/y of Ra, that are survival or selective index, calculated in relation to the heterozygote. In our case all index were calculated in relation to the heterozygote, including the ones for haploid males; thus we have: RA surveval index of genotype AA Ra surveval index of genotype aa R'A surveval index of genotype A R'a surveval index of genotype a 1 surveval index of genotype Aa The index R'A ande R'a were equalized to RA and Ra, respectively, for facilities in the conclusions. 2) Panmitic populations of Hymenoptera, barring mutations, migrations and selection, should follow the Hardy-Weinberg law, thus all gens will be present in the population in the inicial frequency (see Graphifc 1). 3) Heterotic genes: If mutation for heterotic gene ( 1 > RA > Ra) occurs, an equilibrium will be reached in a population when: P = R A + Ra - 2R²a _____________ (9) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a q = R A + Ra - 2R²A _____________ (10) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a A heterotic gene in an hymenopteran population may be maintained without the aid of new mutation only if the survival index of the most viable mutant (RA) does not exced the limiting value given by the formula: R A = 1 + √1+Ra _________ 4 If RA has a value higher thah the one permitted by the formula, then only the more viable gene will remain present in the population (see Graphic 10). The only direct proof for heterotic genes in Hymenoptera was given by Mackensen and Roberts, who obtained offspring from Apis mellefera L. queens fertilized by their own sons. Such inbreeding resulted in a rapid loss of vigor the colony; inbred lines intercrossed gave a high hybrid vigor. Other fats correlated with the "heterosis" problem are; a) In a colony M. quadrifasciata Lep., which suffered severely from heat, the percentage of deths omong males was greater .than among females; b) Casteel and Phillips had shown that in their samples (Apis melifera L). the males had 7 times more abnormalities tian the workers (see Quadros IV to VIII); c) just after emerging the males have great variation, but the older ones show a variation equal to that of workers; d) The tongue lenght of males of Apis mellifera L., of Bombus rubicundus Smith (Quadro X), of Melipona marginata Lep. (Quadro XI), and of Melipona quadrifasciata Lep. Quadro IX, show greater variationthan that of workers of the respective species. If such variation were only caused by subviables genes a rapid increasse of homozigoty for the most viable alleles should be expected; then, these .wild populations, supposed to be in equilibrium, could .not show such variability among males. Thus we conclude that heterotic genes have a grat importance in these cases. 4) By means of mathematical models, we came to the conclusion tht isolating genes (Ra ^ Ra > 1), even in the case of mutations with more adaptability, have only the opor-tunity of survival when the population number is very low (thus the frequency of the gene in the breeding population will be large just after its appearence). A pair of such alleles can only remain present in a population when in border regions of two races or subspecies. For more details see Graphics 5 to 8. 5) Sex-limited genes affecting only females, are of great importance toHymenoptera, being subject to the same limits and formulas as diploid panmitic populations (see formulas 12 and 13). The following examples of these genes were given: a) caste-determining genes in the genus Melipona; b) genes permiting an easy response of females to differences in feeding in almost all social Hymenoptera; c) two genes, found in wild populations, one in Trigona (Plebéia) mosquito F. SMITH (quadro XII) and other in Melipona marginata marginata LEP. (Quadro XIII, colonies 76 and 56) showing sex-limited effects. Sex-limited genes affecting only males do not contribute to the plasticity or genie reserve in hymenopteran populations (see formula 14). 6) The factor time (life span) in Hymenoptera has a particular importance for heterotic genes. Supposing one year to be the time unit and a pair of heterotic genes with respective survival indice equal to RA = 0, 90 and Ra = 0,70 to be present; then if the life time of a population is either one or two years, only the more viable gene will remain present (see formula 11). If the species has a life time of three years, then both alleles will be maintained. Thus we conclude that in specis with long lif-time, the heterotic genes have more importance, and should be found more easily. 7) The colonies of social Hymenoptera behave as units in competition, thus in the studies of populations one must determine the survival index, of these units which may be subdivided in indice for egg-laying, for adaptive value of the queen, for working capacity of workers, etc. 8) A study of endogamic hymenopteran populations, reproduced by sister x brother mating (fig. 2), lead us to the following conclusions: a) without selection, a population, heterozygous for one pair of alleles, will consist after some generations (theoretically after an infinite number of generation) of females AA fecundated with males A and females aa fecundated with males a (see Quadro I). b) Even in endogamic population there is the theoretical possibility of the presence of heterotic genes, at equilibrium without the aid of new mutations (see Graphics 11 and 12), but the following! conditions must be satisfied: I - surveval index of both homozygotes (RA e Ra) should be below 0,75 (see Graphic 13); II - The most viable allele must riot exced the less viable one by more than is permited by the following formula (Pimentel Gomes 1950) (see Gra-fic 14) : 4 R5A + 8 Ra R4A - 4 Ra R³A (Ra - 1) R²A - - R²a (4 R²a + 4 Ra - 1) R A + 2 R³a < o Considering these two conditions, the existance of heterotic genes in endogamic populations of Hymenoptera \>ecames very improbable though not - impossible. 9) Genie mutation offects more hymenopteran than diploid populations. Thus we have for lethal genes in diploid populations: u = q2, and in Hymenoptera: u = s, being u the mutation ratio and s the frequency of the mutant in the male population. 10) Three factors, important to competition among species of Meliponini were analysed: flying capacity of workers, food gathering capacity of workers, egg-laying of the queen. In this connection we refer to the variability of the tongue lenght observed in colonies from several localites, to the method of transporting the pollen in the stomach, from some pots (Melliponi-ni storage alveolus) to others (e. g. in cases of pillage), and to the observation that the species with the most populous hives are almost always the most frequent ones also. 11) Several defensive ways used for Meliponini to avoid predation are cited, but special references are made upon the camouflage of both hive (fig. 5) and hive entrance (fig. 4) and on the mimetism (see list in page ). Also under the same heading we described the method of Lestrimelitta for pillage. 12) As mechanisms important for promoting genetic plasticity of hymenopteran species we cited: a) cytological variations and b) genie reserve. As to the former, duplications and numerical variations of chromosomes were studied. Diprion simile ATC was cited as example for polyploidy. Apis mellife-ra L. (n •= 16) also sugests polyploid origen since: a) The genus Melipona, which belongs to a" related tribe, presents in all species so far studied n = 9 chromosomes and b) there occurs formation of dyads in the firt spermatocyte division. It is su-gested that the origin of the sex-chromosome of Apis mellifera It. may be related to the possible origin of diplo-tetraploidy in this species. With regards to the genie reserve, several possible types of mutants were discussed. They were classified according to their survival indices; the heterotic and neutral mutants must be considered as more important for the genie reserve. 13) The mean radius from a mother to a daghter colony was estimated as 100 meters. Since the Meliponini hives swarm only once a year we may take 100 meters a year as the average dispersion of female Meliponini in ocordance to data obtained from Trigona (tetragonisca) jaty F. SMITH and Melipona marginata LEP., while other species may give different values. For males the flying distance was roughly estimated to be 10 times that for females. A review of the bibliography on Meliponini swarm was made (pg. 43 to 47) and new facts added. The population desity (breeding population) corresponds in may species of Meliponini to one male and one female per 10.000 square meters. Apparently the males are more frequent than the females, because there are sometimes many thousands, of males in a swarm; but for the genie frequency the individuals which have descendants are the ones computed. In the case of Apini and Meliponini, only one queen per hive and the males represented by. the spermatozoos in its spermateca are computed. In Meliponini only one male mate with the queen, while queens of Apis mellijera L. are fecundated by an average of about 1, 5 males. (Roberts, 1944). From the date cited, one clearly sees that, on the whole, populations of wild social bees (Meliponini) are so small that the Sewall Wright effect may become of great importance. In fact applying the Wright's formula: f = ( 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) (1 - 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) which measures the fixation and loss of genes per generation, we see that the fixation or loss of genes is of about 7% in the more frequent species, and rarer species about 11%. The variation in size, tergite color, background color, etc, of Melipona marginata Lep. is atributed to this genetic drift. A detail, important to the survival of Meliponini species, is the Constance of their breeding population. This Constance is due to the social organization, i. e., to the care given to the reproductive individuals (the queen with its sperm pack), to the way of swarming, to the food storage intended to control variations of feeding supply, etc. 14) Some species of the Meliponini are adapted to various ecological conditions and inhabit large geographical areas (e. g. T. (Tetragonisca jaty F. SMITH), and Trigona (Nanno-trigona testaceicornis LEP.) while others are limited to narrow regions with special ecological conditions (e. g. M. fuscata me-lanoventer SCHWARZ). Other species still, within the same geographical region, profit different ecological conditions, as do M. marginata LEP. and M. quadrifasciata LEP. The geographical distribution of Melipona quadrifasciata LEP. is different according to the subspecies: a) subsp anthidio-des LEP. (represented in Fig. 7 by black squares) inhabits a region fron the North of the S. Paulo State to Northeastern Brazil, ,b) subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., (marked in Fig. 7 with black triangles) accurs from the South of S. Paulo State to the middle of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (South Brazil). In the margined region between these two areas of distribution, hi-brid colonies were found (Fig. 7, white circles); they are shown with more details in fig. 8, while the zone of hybridization is roughly indicated in fig. 9 (gray zone). The subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., has 4 complete yellow bands on the abdominal tergites while anthidioides LEP. has interrupted ones. This character is determined by one or two genes and gives different adaptative properties to the subspecies. Figs. 10 shows certains meteorological isoclines which have aproximately the same configuration as the limits of the hybrid zone, suggesting different climatic adaptabilities for both genotypes. The exis-tance of a border zone between the areas of both subspecies, where were found a high frequency of hybrids, is explained as follows: being each subspecies adapted to a special climatic zone, we may suppose a poor adaptation of either one in the border region, which is also a region of intermediate climatic conditions. Thus, the hybrids, having a combination of the parent qualities, will be best adapted to the transition zone. Thus, the hybrids will become heterotic and an equilibrium will be reached with all genotypes present in the population in the border region.

Erstellung einer Blitzschutzrichtlinie für die Produktpalette der FAM im Auftrag der "Gesellschaft für Prozeßautomation mbH" (GPA)"

On the basis of the global use of the FAM installations and systems, their location, type and height, a lightning protection system is required, which protects humans and machines from danger of a lightning. At the beginning the development, the threat and the potential for destruction of lightning are described. Besides the resulting solid normative calculation models and tables are presented. Then, the product portfolio of the FAM is characterized. From this demonstration models are selected; on the one hand a model for the totality of all portable devices and the other hand a model which defines the power plants. Subsequently, the risk management and a strengths and weaknesses analysis are performed. After that, with graphical and mathematical models, these weaknesses as well as the functional equipotential bonding and grounding system and its dimensioning are investigated and solutions are demonstrated. The following is a coordination of lightning protection standard with other directives and standards in order to classify the resulting internal lightning protection and protective measures against electromagnetic pulse and to generate a uniform protection and application platform. Furthermore, problems of the economy of protective circuit is shown and a solution is given. Finally, the indicated possible solutions are replaced by definitions. The main classification and structure of lightning protection directive are shown and exemplarily applied.

Double-Exponential Model of a Photovoltaic Cell with Temperature Dependence

The purpose of the research is the creation of mathematical models in MATLAB based on the double exponential model of the photovoltaic cell. The developed model allows for different physical and environmental parameters. An equivalent circuit of the model includes a photocurrent source, two diodes, and a series and parallel resistance. The paper presents the simulation results for each parameter. The simulation data are displayed graphically and numerical results are saved in a file.