Nanophotonics of optical fibers

This review is concerned with nanoscale effects in highly transparent dielectric photonic structures fabricated from optical fibers. In contrast to those in plasmonics, these structures do not contain metal particles, wires, or films with nanoscale dimensions. Nevertheless, a nanoscale perturbation of the fiber radius can significantly alter their performance. This paper consists of three parts. The first part considers propagation of light in thin optical fibers (microfibers) having the radius of the order of 100 nanometers to 1 micron. The fundamental mode propagating along a microfiber has an evanescent field which may be strongly expanded into the external area. Then, the cross-sectional dimensions of the mode and transmission losses are very sensitive to small variations of the microfiber radius. Under certain conditions, a change of just a few nanometers in the microfiber radius can significantly affect its transmission characteristics and, in particular, lead to the transition from the waveguiding to non-waveguiding regime. The second part of the review considers slow propagation of whispering gallery modes in fibers having the radius of the order of 10–100 microns. The propagation of these modes along the fiber axis is so slow that they can be governed by extremely small nanoscale changes of the optical fiber radius. This phenomenon is exploited in SNAP (surface nanoscale axial photonics), a new platform for fabrication of miniature super-low-loss photonic integrated circuits with unprecedented sub-angstrom precision. The SNAP theory and applications are overviewed. The third part of this review describes methods of characterization of the radius variation of microfibers and regular optical fibers with sub-nanometer precision.

Two cascaded SOAs used as intensity modulators for adaptively modulated optical OFDM signals in optical access networks

Detailed theoretical and numerical investigations of the transmission performance of adaptively modulated optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexed (AMOOFDM) signals are undertaken, for the first time, in optical amplification and chromatic dispersion (CD) compensation free single mode fiber (SMF) intensity-modulated and directdetection (IMDD) systems using two cascaded semiconductor optical amplifiers in a counterpropagating configuration as an intensity modulator (TC-SOA-CC-IM). A theoretical model describing the characteristics of this configuration is developed. Extensive performance comparisons are also made between the TC-SOA-CC and the single SOA intensity modulators. It is shown that, the TC-SOA-CC reaches its strongly saturated region using a lower input optical power much faster than the single SOA resulting in significantly reduced effective carrier lifetime and thus wide TC-SOA-CC bandwidths. It is shown that at low input optical power, we can increase the signal line rate almost 115% which will be more than twice the transmission performance offered by single SOA. In addition, the TCSOA-CC-IM is capable of supporting signal line rates higher than corresponding to the SOA-IM by using 10dB lower input optical powers. For long transmission distance, the TC-SOA-CC-IM has much stronger CD compensation capability compared to the SOA-IM. In addition the use of TC-SOA-CC-IM is more effective regarding the capability to benefit from the CD compensation for shorter distances starting at 60km SMF, whilst for the SOA-IM starting at 90km. © 2014 Optical Society of America.

Spectral characteristics and thermal evolution of long-period gratings in photonic crystal fibers fabricated with a near-IR radiation femtosecond laser using point-by-point inscription

The spectral properties of long-period gratings (LPGs) fabricated in photonic crystal fibers using femtosecond laser pulses by the point-by-point technique, without oil-immersion of the fiber, are investigated in detail. Postfabrication spectral monitoring at room temperature showed significant long-term instability of the gratings and stable spectra only after 600 h. The stabilized spectral properties of the gratings improved with increasing annealing temperature. The observed changes in resonant wavelength, optical strength, and grating birefringence were correlated to the laser inscription energy and were further used to study the mechanism of femtosecond inscription. Furthermore, the femtosecond-laser inscribed LPGs were compared to electric-arc fabricated LPGs. Comparison of experimental results with theoretical models of LPGs and laser propagation during inscription indicate that the major processes responsible for the index change are permanent compaction and thermally induced strain, the latter can be significantly changed through annealing. © 2011 Optical Society of America.

Design rules for nonlinear spectral compression in optical fibers

We present comprehensive design rules to optimize the process of spectral compression arising from nonlinear pulse propagation in an optical fiber. Extensive numerical simulations are used to predict the performance characteristics of the process as well as to identify the optimal operational conditions within the space of system parameters. It is shown that the group velocity dispersion of the fiber is not detrimental and, in fact, helps achieve optimum compression. We also demonstrate that near-transform-limited rectangular and parabolic pulses can be generated in the region of optimum compression.

3D printed sensing patches with embedded polymer optical fibre Bragg gratings

The first demonstration of a polymer optical fibre Bragg grating (POFBG) embedded in a 3-D printed structure is reported. Its cyclic strain performance and temperature characteristics are examined and discussed. The sensing patch has a repeatable strain sensitivity of 0.38 pm/μepsilon. Its temperature behaviour is unstable, with temperature sensitivity values varying between 30-40 pm/°C.

A compact polymer optical fibre ultrasound detector

Polymer optical fibre (POF) is a relatively new and novel technology that presents an innovative approach for ultrasonic endoscopic applications. Currently, piezo electric transducers are the typical detectors of choice, albeit possessing a limited bandwidth due to their resonant nature and a sensitivity that decreases proportionally to their size. Optical fibres provide immunity from electromagnetic interference and POF in particular boasts more suitable physical characteristics than silica optical fibre. The most important of these are lower acoustic impedance, a reduced Young's Modulus and a higher acoustic sensitivity than single-mode silica fibre at both 1 MHz and 10 MHz. POF therefore offers an interesting alternative to existing technology. Intrinsic fibre structures such as Bragg gratings and Fabry-Perot cavities may be inscribed into the fibre core using UV lasers. These gratings are a modulation of the refractive index of the fibre core and provide the advantages of high reflectivity, customisable bandwidth and point detection. We present a compact in fibre ultrasonic point detector based upon a POF Bragg grating (POFBG) sensor. We demonstrate that the detector is capable of leaving a laboratory environment by using connectorised fibre sensors and make a case for endoscopic ultrasonic detection through use of a mounting structure that better mimics the environment of an endoscopic probe. We measure the effects of water immersion upon POFBGs and analyse the ultrasonic response for 1, 5 and 10 MHz.

UV-Inscribed optical fiber gratings in Mid-IR range and their laser applications

We have UV-inscribed fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), long-period gratings (LPGs), and tilted fiber gratings (TFGs) into mid-IR 2μm range using three common optical fiber grating fabrication techniques (two-beam holographic, phase mask, and point-by-point). The fabricated FBGs have been evaluated for thermal and strain response. It has been revealed that the FBG devices with responses in mid-IR range are much more sensitive to temperature than that in near-IR range. To explore the unique cladding mode coupling function, we have investigated the thermal and refractive index sensitivities of LPGs and identified that the coupled cladding modes in mid-IR range are also much more sensitive to temperature and surrounding medium refractive index change. The 45° tilted fiber gratings (45°-TFGs) as polarizing devices in mid-IR have been investigated for their polarization extinction characteristics. As efficient reflection filters and in-cavity polarizers, the mid-IR FBGs and 45°-TFGs have been employed in fiber laser cavity to realize multi-wavelength 2 μm Tm-doped CW and mode locked fiber lasers, respectively.

In vivo tissue diagnosis for myocardial infarction using optical spectroscopy with novel spectral interpretation algorithms

In recent decades, the rapid development of optical spectroscopy for tissue diagnosis has been indicative of its high clinical value. The goal of this research is to prove the feasibility of using diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy to assess myocardial infarction (MI) in vivo. The proposed optical technique was designed to be an intra-operative guidance tool that can provide useful information about the condition of an infarct for surgeons and researchers. ^ In order to gain insight into the pathophysiological characteristics of an infarct, two novel spectral analysis algorithms were developed to interpret diffuse reflectance spectra. The algorithms were developed based on the unique absorption properties of hemoglobin for the purpose of retrieving regional hemoglobin oxygenation saturation and concentration data in tissue from diffuse reflectance spectra. The algorithms were evaluated and validated using simulated data and actual experimental data. ^ Finally, the hypothesis of the study was validated using a rabbit model of MI. The mechanism by which the MI was induced was the ligation of a major coronary artery of the left ventricle. Three to four weeks after the MI was induced, the extent of myocardial tissue injury and the evolution of the wound healing process were investigated using the proposed spectroscopic methodology as well as histology. The correlations between spectral alterations and histopathological features of the MI were analyzed statistically. ^ The results of this PhD study demonstrate the applicability of the proposed optical methodology for assessing myocardial tissue damage induced by MI in vivo. The results of the spectral analysis suggest that connective tissue proliferation induced by MI significantly alter the characteristics of diffuse reflectance and fluorescence spectra. The magnitudes of the alterations could be quantitatively related to the severity and extensiveness of connective tissue proliferation.^

In vivo characterization of epileptic tissue with optical spectroscopy

For children with intractable seizures, surgical removal of epileptic foci, if identifiable and feasible, can be an effective way to reduce or eliminate seizures. The success of this type of surgery strongly hinges upon the ability to identify and demarcate those epileptic foci. The ultimate goal of this research project is to develop an effective technology for detection of unique in vivo pathophysiological characteristics of epileptic cortex and, subsequently, to use this technology to guide epilepsy surgery intraoperatively. In this PhD dissertation the feasibility of using optical spectroscopy to identify uniquein vivo pathophysiological characteristics of epileptic cortex was evaluated and proven using the data collected from children undergoing epilepsy surgery. ^ In this first in vivo human study, static diffuse reflectance and fluorescence spectra were measured from the epileptic cortex, defined by intraoperative ECoG, and its surrounding tissue from pediatric patients undergoing epilepsy surgery. When feasible, biopsy samples were taken from the investigated sites for the subsequent histological analysis. Using the histological data as the gold standard, spectral data was analyzed with statistical tools. The results of the analysis show that static diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and its combination with static fluorescence spectroscopy can be used to effectively differentiate between epileptic cortex with histopathological abnormalities and normal cortex in vivo with a high degree of accuracy. ^ To maximize the efficiency of optical spectroscopy in detecting and localizing epileptic cortex intraoperatively, the static system was upgraded to investigate histopathological abnormalities deep within the epileptic cortex, as well as to detect unique temporal pathophysiological characteristics of epileptic cortex. Detection of deep abnormalities within the epileptic cortex prompted a redesign of the fiberoptic probe. A mechanical probe holder was also designed and constructed to maintain the probe contact pressure and contact point during the time dependent measurements. The dynamic diffuse reflectance spectroscopy system was used to characterize in vivo pediatric epileptic cortex. The results of the study show that some unique wavelength dependent temporal characteristics (e.g., multiple horizontal bands in the correlation coefficient map γ(λref = 800 nm, λcomp ,t)) can be found in the time dependent recordings of diffuse reflectance spectra from epileptic cortex defined by ECoG.^

Fluorescence Characteristics of Size-Fractionated Dissolved Organic Matter: Implications for a Molecular Assembly Based Structure?

Surface freshwater samples from Everglades National Park, Florida, were used to investigate the size distributions of natural dissolved organic matter (DOM) and associated fluorescence characteristics along the molecular weight continuum. Samples were fractionated using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and characterized by spectroscopic means, in particular Excitation-Emission Matrix fluorescence modeled with parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC). Most of the eight components obtained from PARAFAC modeling were broadly distributed across the DOM molecular weight range, and the optical properties of the eight size fractions for all samples studied were quite consistent among each other. Humic-like components presented a similar distribution in all the samples, with enrichment in the middle molecular weight range. Some variability in the relative distribution of the different humic-like components was observed among the different size fractions and among samples. The protein like fluorescence, although also generally present in all fractions, was more variable but generally enriched in the highest and lowest molecular weight fractions. These observations are in agreement with the hypothesis of a supramolecular structure for DOM, and suggest that DOM fluorescence characteristics may be controlled by molecular assemblies with similar optical properties, distributed along the molecular weight continuum. This study highlights the importance of studying the molecular structure of DOM on a molecular size distribution perspective, which may have important implications in understanding the environmental dynamics such materials.

Nonlinear optics with cold Rb atoms using tapered optical nanofibres

Optical nanofibres (ONFs) are very thin optical waveguides with sub-wavelength diameters. ONFs have very high evanescent fields and the guided light is confined strongly in the transverse direction. These fibres can be used to achieve strong light-matter interactions. Atoms around the waist of an ONF can be probed by collecting the atomic fluorescence coupling or by measuring the transmission (or the polarisation) of the probe beam sent through it. This thesis presents experiments using ONFs for probing and manipulating laser-cooled 87Rb atoms. As an initial experiment, a single mode ONF was integrated into a magneto-optical trap (MOT) and used for measuring the characteristics of the MOT, such as the loading time and the average temperature of the atom cloud. The effect of a near-resonant probe beam on the local temperature of the cold atoms has been studied. Next, the ONF was used for manipulating the atoms in the evanescent fields region in order to generate nonlinear optical effects. Four-wave mixing, ac Stark effect (Autler-Townes splitting) and electromagnetically induced transparency have been observed at unprecedented ultralow power levels. In another experiment, a few-mode ONF, supporting only the fundamental mode and the first higher order mode group, has been used for studying cold atoms. A higher pumping rate of the atomic fluorescence into the higher order fibreguided modes and more interactions with the surrounding atoms for higher order mode evanescent light, when compared to signals for the fundamental mode, have been identified. The results obtained in the thesis are particularly for a fundamental understanding of light-atom interactions when atoms are near a dielectric surface and also for the development of fibre-based quantum information technologies. Atoms coupled to ONFs could be used for preparing intrinsically fibre-coupled quantum nodes for quantum computing and the studies presented here are significant for a detailed understanding of such a system.

Characteristics of aerosols over the Indian region and their variability associated with atmospheric conditions

The aerosols in the atmosphere play major role in the radiation balance of the Earthatmosphere system. Direct and indirect impact of aerosols on the weather and climate still remains as a topic to be investigated in detail. The effect of aerosols on the radiation budget and thereby circulation pattern is important and requires further study. A detailed analysis of the aerosol properties, their variability and meteorological processes that affect the aerosol properties and distribution over the Indian region is performed in the thesis. The doctoral thesis entitled “Characteristics of aerosols over the Indian region and their variability associated with atmospheric conditions” contains 7 chapters. This thesis presents results on the analysis on the distribution (spatial and temporal) and characteristics of the aerosols over the Indian region and adjoining seas. Regional and stationwise data were analysed and methods such as modeling and statistical analysis are implemented to understand the aerosol properties, classification and transportation. Chapter-1 presents a brief introduction on the aerosols, their measurement techniques, impact of aerosols on the atmospheric radiation budget, climatic and geographic features of the study area and the literature review on the previous studies. It provides a basic understanding in the field of study and objective of the thesis. Definition of the aerosols, their sources/sinks and classification of the particles according to optical and microphysical properties are described. Different measurement techniques such as sampling and remote sensing methods are explained in detail. Physical parameters used to describe aerosol properties and effect of aerosols on the radiation distribution are also discussed. The chapter also explains the objectives of the thesis and description of climatic features of the study area.

Fabrication, Optical Analysis and Photonic Applications of Certain Metallic Nanostructure-Integrated Dye Doped Polymer Optical Fibers” submitted by Ms. Suneetha Sebastian

Polymer Optical Fibers have occupied historically a place for large core flexible fibers operating in short distances. In addition to their practical passive application in short-haul communication they constitute a potential research field as active devices with organic dopants. Organic dyes are preferred as dopants over organic semiconductors due to their higher optical cross section. Thus organic dyes as gain media in a polymer fiber is used to develop efficient and narrow laser sources with a tunability throughout the visible region or optical amplifier with high gain. Dyes incorporated in fiber form has added advantage over other solid state forms such as films since the pump power required to excite the molecules in the core of the fiber is less thereby utilising the pump power effectively. In 1987, Muto et.al investigated a dye doped step index polymer fiber laser. Afterwards, numerous researches have been carried out in this area demonstrating laser emission from step index, graded index and hollow optical fibers incorporating various dyes. Among various dyes, Rhodamine6G is the most widely and commonly used laser dye for the last four decades. Rhodamine6G has many desirable optical properties which make it preferable over other organic dyes such as Coumarin, Nile Blue, Curcumin etc. The research focus on the implementation of efficient fiber lasers and amplifiers for short fiber distances. Developing efficient plastic lasers with electrical pumping can be a new proposal in this field which demands lowest possible threshold pump energy of the gain medium in the cavity as an important parameter. One way of improving the efficiency of the lasers, through low threshold pump energy, is by modifying the gain of the amplifiers in the resonator/cavity. Success in the field of Radiative Decay Engineering can pave way to this problem. Laser gain media consisting of dye-nanoparticle composites can improve the efficiency by lowering the lasing threshold and enhancing the photostability. The electric field confined near the surface of metal nanoparticles due to Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance can be very effective for the excitation of active centers to impart high optical gain for lasing. Since the Surface Plasmon Resonance of nanoparticles of gold and silver lies in the visible range, it can affect the spectral emission characteristics of organic dyes such as Rhodamine6G through plasmon field generated by the particles. The change in emission of the dye placed near metal nanoparticles depend on plasmon field strength which in turn depends on the type of metal, size of nanoparticle, surface modification of the particle and the wavelength of incident light. Progress in fabrication of different types of nanostructures lead to the advent of nanospheres, nanoalloys, core-shell and nanowires to name a few. The thesis deals with the fabrication and characterisation of polymer optical fibers with various metallic and bimetallic nanostructures incorporated in the gain media for efficient fiber lasers with low threshold and improved photostability.

Investigations on the structural, optical and magnetic properties of nanostructured cerium oxide in pure and doped forms and its polymer nanocomposites

In recent years, nanoscience and nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most important and exciting frontier areas of research interest in almost all fields of science and technology. This technology provides the path of many breakthrough changes in the near future in many areas of advanced technological applications. Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary area of research and development. The advent of nanotechnology in the modern times and the beginning of its systematic study can be thought of to have begun with a lecture by the famous physicist Richard Feynman. In 1960 he presented a visionary and prophetic lecture at the meeting of the American Physical Society entitled “there is plenty of room at the bottom” where he speculated on the possibility and potential of nanosized materials. Synthesis of nanomaterials and nanostructures are the essential aspects of nanotechnology. Studies on new physical properties and applications of nanomaterials are possible only when materials are made available with desired size, morphology, crystal structure and chemical composition. Cerium oxide (ceria) is one of the important functional materials with high mechanical strength, thermal stability, excellent optical properties, appreciable oxygen ion conductivity and oxygen storage capacity. Ceria finds a variety of applications in mechanical polishing of microelectronic devices, as catalysts for three-way automatic exhaust systems and as additives in ceramics and phosphors. The doped ceria usually has enhanced catalytic and electrical properties, which depend on a series of factors such as the particle size, the structural characteristics, morphology etc. Ceria based solid solutions have been widely identified as promising electrolytes for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). The success of many promising device technologies depends on the suitable powder synthesis techniques. The challenge for introducing new nanopowder synthesis techniques is to preserve high material quality while attaining the desired composition. The method adopted should give reproducible powder properties, high yield and must be time and energy effective. The use of a variety of new materials in many technological applications has been realized through the use of thin films of these materials. Thus the development of any new material will have good application potential if it can be deposited in thin film form with the same properties. The advantageous properties of thin films include the possibility of tailoring the properties according to film thickness, small mass of the materials involved and high surface to volume ratio. The synthesis of polymer nanocomposites is an integral aspect of polymer nanotechnology. By inserting the nanometric inorganic compounds, the properties of polymers can be improved and this has a lot of applications depending upon the inorganic filler material present in the polymer.

Optical emission spectroscopy as a process-monitoring tool in PECVD of amorphous carbon coatings

Dans ce projet de recherche, le dépôt des couches minces de carbone amorphe (généralement connu sous le nom de DLC pour Diamond-Like Carbon en anglais) par un procédé de dépôt chimique en phase vapeur assisté par plasma (ou PECVD pour Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor deposition en anglais) a été étudié en utilisant la Spectroscopie d’Émission Optique (OES) et l’analyse partielle par régression des moindres carrés (PLSR). L’objectif de ce mémoire est d’établir un modèle statistique pour prévoir les propriétés des revêtements DLC selon les paramètres du procédé de déposition ou selon les données acquises par OES. Deux séries d’analyse PLSR ont été réalisées. La première examine la corrélation entre les paramètres du procédé et les caractéristiques du plasma pour obtenir une meilleure compréhension du processus de dépôt. La deuxième série montre le potentiel de la technique d’OES comme outil de surveillance du procédé et de prédiction des propriétés de la couche déposée. Les résultats montrent que la prédiction des propriétés des revêtements DLC qui était possible jusqu’à maintenant en se basant sur les paramètres du procédé (la pression, la puissance, et le mode du plasma), serait envisageable désormais grâce aux informations obtenues par OES du plasma (particulièrement les indices qui sont reliées aux concentrations des espèces dans le plasma). En effet, les données obtenues par OES peuvent être utilisées pour surveiller directement le processus de dépôt plutôt que faire une étude complète de l’effet des paramètres du processus, ceux-ci étant strictement reliés au réacteur plasma et étant variables d’un laboratoire à l’autre. La perspective de l’application d’un modèle PLSR intégrant les données de l’OES est aussi démontrée dans cette recherche afin d’élaborer et surveiller un dépôt avec une structure graduelle.