Taxonomía y caracterización del arbusto forrajero Atriplex halimus L.

El objetivo de esta Tesis Doctoral ha sido la revisión de la taxonomía infraespecífica de la especie Atriplex halimus L., la delimitación del área geográfica que ocupan sus taxones y su caracterización morfológica. En base a las citas bibliográficas y material de herbario consultado se ha trazado un mapa de distribución de la especie, que delimita su distribución como planta espontánea a la Cuenca Mediterránea, desierto de Siria, Macizo de Hoggar y Sahara Occidental. El resto debe considerarse poblaciones naturalizadas o cultivadas. La taxonomía actual, basada en relaciones filogenéticas, nos indica que lo adecuado es separar las poblaciones de A. halimus en dos clados que se caracterizan por tener diferente nivel de ploidía. Para definir el área de distribución de los clados diploide y tetraploide se ha determinado la ploidía de 19 poblaciones en el espacio comprendido entre las dos áreas de distribución conocidas. Y como resultado el área de distribución de ambos clados puede definirse trazando una recta que une el estrecho de Gibraltar con Estambul, las poblaciones al sur de esta línea son tetraploides a las que habría que añadir las poblaciones del este y sur de la isla de Cerdeña que son también tetraploides. Se han determinado cuales son los parámetros morfológicos que permiten caracterizar ambos clados, para lo cual se han estudiado 52 poblaciones que comprenden toda el área de distribución de la especie. Se han evaluado caracteres cualitativos y cuantitativos de valvas fructíferas, plántulas cultivadas en cámara y arbustos de 2 a 4 años situados en la misma parcela. El único elemento fiable para determinar la pertenencia al clado diploide o tetraploide es la medición del nivel de ploidía. Ninguno de los caracteres morfológicos estudiados es plenamente fiable para determinar si los individuos de una población pertenecen al clado diploide o tetraploide a pesar de realizarse las mediciones sobre poblaciones cultivadas en igualdad de condiciones de suelo y clima, y en condiciones muy favorables para la expresión de caracteres cualitativos y cuantitativos. Los caracteres cualitativos observados que guardan una mayor correlación con el nivel de ploidía son: la base de las hojas de las plántulas, el porte del arbusto, la ramificación, el ángulo de inserción de las ramas y la longitud de la inflorescencia. Respecto a los datos cuantitativos los más relevantes han sido, la longitud de los cotiledones y la longitud del limbo de la 1ª, 3ª o 5ª hoja de la plántula o la razón entre este valor y la anchura del limbo. ABSTRACT The aim of this Thesis has been in the revision of the infraspecies taxa of Atriplex halimus L., the delimitation of their natural growing area and their morphological characterization. Using references to relevant literature and consultation of herbariums, it has been possible to map the distribution of the species as spontaneous plant in the Mediterranean Basin, Desert of Syria, Massif of Hoggar and Western Sahara. The remaining populations must be considered as naturalized or cultivated. The current taxonomy, based on phylogenetic relationships, indicates that A.halimus should be divided in two clades. These clades are characterized by their different ploidy level. Samples of nineteen populations collected from localizations between the defined distribution area of both clades have been characterized for their ploidy level. As a result, it can be seen that the line of clade separation can be trazed from Istambul tothe Strait of Gibraltar, where the populations north to this line are classified as diploid and those south of the line are clsassified as tetraploid. The only exception of this rule is in Sardinia, hwre populations to the West and South of the Island are also classified as tetraploid. The morphological parameters, which include the characterization of both clades, have been defined, and the study of fifty-two populations from the entire distribution area according to these parameters have been analysed. The qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the fruit valves have been evaluated, with seedlings grown in a culture chamber, and 2-4 years old shrubs grown in the same orchard. None of the morphological characters under study are fully reliable to determine whether individuals in a population belong to clade diploid or tetraploid. This is despite measurements being made on populations grown under the same conditions of soil and climate, and in very favorable conditions for the expression of qualitative and quantitative traits. The qualitative characteristics that show a higher correlation with the ploidy level are: the base of the leaves of the seedlings, the bearing bush, the branch arrangement, the angle of insertion of the branches and the inflorescence length. With regards to the quantitative data the most relevant were the length of the cotyledons and the length of the blade of the 1st, 3rd or 5th leaves of the seedling, and the ratio of any of this values and the leaf blade width. The only reliable way to determine the diploid or tetraploid clade membership is the measurement of ploidy level.

Su(UR)ES: A gene suppressing DNA underreplication in intercalary and pericentric heterochromatin of Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosomes

A genetic locus suppressing DNA underreplication in intercalary heterochromatin (IH) and pericentric heterochromatin (PH) of the polytene chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster salivary glands, has been described. Found in the In(1)scV2 strain, the mutation, designated as Su(UR)ES, was located on chromosome 3L at position 34.8 and cytologically mapped to region 68A3-B4. A cytological phenotype was observed in the salivary gland chromosomes of larvae homozygous and hemizygous for Su(UR)ES: (i) in the IH regions, that normally are incompletely polytenized and so they often break to form “weak points,” underreplication is suppressed, breaks and ectopic contacts disappear; (ii) the degree of polytenization in PH grows higher. That is why the regions in chromosome arm basements, normally β-heterochromatic, acquire a distinct banding pattern, i.e., become euchromatic by morphological criteria; (iii) an additional bulk of polytenized material arises between the arms of chromosome 3 to form a fragment with a typical banding pattern. Chromosome 2 PH reveals additional α-heterochromatin. Su(UR)ES does not affect the viability, fertility, or morphological characters of the imago, and has semidominant expression in the heterozygote and distinct maternal effect. The results obtained provide evidence that the processes leading to DNA underreplication in IH and PH are affected by the same genetic mechanism.

Molecular studies suggest that cartilaginous fishes have a terminal position in the piscine tree

The Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) are commonly accepted as being sister group to the other extant Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates). To clarify gnathostome relationships and to aid in resolving and dating the major piscine divergences, we have sequenced the complete mtDNA of the starry skate and have included it in phylogenetic analysis along with three squalomorph chondrichthyans—the common dogfish, the spiny dogfish, and the star spotted dogfish—and a number of bony fishes and amniotes. The direction of evolution within the gnathostome tree was established by rooting it with the most closely related non-gnathostome outgroup, the sea lamprey, as well as with some more distantly related taxa. The analyses placed the chondrichthyans in a terminal position in the piscine tree. These findings, which also suggest that the origin of the amniote lineage is older than the age of the oldest extant bony fishes (the lungfishes), challenge the evolutionary direction of several morphological characters that have been used in reconstructing gnathostome relationships. Applying as a calibration point the age of the oldest lungfish fossils, 400 million years, the molecular estimate placed the squalomorph/batomorph divergence at ≈190 million years before present. This dating is consistent with the occurrence of the earliest batomorph (skates and rays) fossils in the paleontological record. The split between gnathostome fishes and the amniote lineage was dated at ≈420 million years before present.

Integrated fossil and molecular data reconstruct bat echolocation

Molecular and morphological data have important roles in illuminating evolutionary history. DNA data often yield well resolved phylogenies for living taxa, but are generally unattainable for fossils. A distinct advantage of morphology is that some types of morphological data may be collected for extinct and extant taxa. Fossils provide a unique window on evolutionary history and may preserve combinations of primitive and derived characters that are not found in extant taxa. Given their unique character complexes, fossils are critical in documenting sequences of character transformation over geologic time and may elucidate otherwise ambiguous patterns of evolution that are not revealed by molecular data alone. Here, we employ a methodological approach that allows for the integration of molecular and paleontological data in deciphering one of the most innovative features in the evolutionary history of mammals—laryngeal echolocation in bats. Molecular data alone, including an expanded data set that includes new sequences for the A2AB gene, suggest that microbats are paraphyletic but do not resolve whether laryngeal echolocation evolved independently in different microbat lineages or evolved in the common ancestor of bats and was subsequently lost in megabats. When scaffolds from molecular phylogenies are incorporated into parsimony analyses of morphological characters, including morphological characters for the Eocene taxa Icaronycteris, Archaeonycteris, Hassianycteris, and Palaeochiropteryx, the resulting trees suggest that laryngeal echolocation evolved in the common ancestor of fossil and extant bats and was subsequently lost in megabats. Molecular dating suggests that crown-group bats last shared a common ancestor 52 to 54 million years ago.

Does behavior reflect phylogeny in swiftlets (Aves: Apodidae)? A test using cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA sequences.

Swiftlets are small insectivorous birds, many of which nest in caves and are known to echolocate. Due to a lack of distinguishing morphological characters, the taxonomy of swiftlets is primarily based on the presence or absence of echolocating ability, together with nest characters. To test the reliability of these behavioral characters, we constructed an independent phylogeny using cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA sequences from swiftlets and their relatives. This phylogeny is broadly consistent with the higher classification of swifts but does not support the monophyly of swiftlets. Echolocating swiftlets (Aerodramus) and the nonecholocating "giant swiftlet" (Hydrochous gigas) group together, but the remaining nonecholocating swiftlets belonging to Collocalia are not sister taxa to these swiftlets. While echolocation may be a synapomorphy of Aerodramus (perhaps secondarily lost in Hydrochous), no character of Aerodramus nests showed a statistically significant fit to the molecular phylogeny, indicating that nest characters are not phylogenetically reliable in this group.

Flightless brown kiwis of New Zealand possess extremely subdivided population structure and cryptic species like small mammals.

Using allozymes and mtDNA sequences from the cytochrome b gene, we report that the brown kiwi has the highest levels of genetic structuring observed in birds. Moreover, the mtDNA sequences are, with two minor exceptions, diagnostic genetic markers for each population investigated, even though they are among the more slowly evolving coding regions in this genome. A major unexpected finding was the concordant split in molecular phylogenies between brown kiwis in the southern South Island and elsewhere in New Zealand. This basic phylogeographic boundary halfway down the South Island coincides with a fixed allele difference in the Hb nuclear locus and strongly suggests that two morphologically cryptic species are currently merged under one polytypic species. This is another striking example of how molecular genetic assays can detect phylogenetic discontinuities that are not reflected in traditional morphologically based taxonomies. However, reanalysis of the morphological characters by using phylogenetic methods revealed that the reason for this discordance is that most are primitive and thus are phylogenetically uninformative. Shared-derived morphological characters support the same relationships evident in the molecular phylogenies and, in concert with the molecular data, suggest that as brown kiwis colonized northward from the southern South Island, they retained many primitive characters that confounded earlier systematists. Strong subdivided population structure and cryptic species in brown kiwis seem to have evolved relatively recently as a consequence of Pleistocene range disjunctions, low dispersal power, and genetic drift in small populations.

Relações filogenéticas das espécies de Crenicichla Heckel, 1840 e Teleocichla Kullander, 1988 (Teleostei: Cichlidae)

São reconhecidos 90 nomes específicos válidos de Crenicichla e oito de Teleocichla. Juntos, os dois gêneros-alvo do presente estudo compreendem quase 1/5 da diversidade total de Cichlinae, subfamília neotropical de Cichlidae. Apesar das espécies de Crenicichla e Teleocichla formarem um clado bem corroborado através de filogenias baseadas tanto em dados morfológicos quanto em dados moleculares, as relações entre as suas espécies foram ainda pouco estudadas. Os dois estudos filogenéticos de Crenicichla conhecidos são parcialmente discordantes entre si e incorporaram apenas uma parcela da diversidade do grupo. Baseados apenas em dados moleculares, não foram acompanhados por um estudo de caracteres morfológicos que indicariam as sinapomorfias ou características diagnósticas para identificação dos grupos monofiléticos delimitados. No presente estudo, os principais objetivos consistem em testar o monofiletismo do grupo formado pelas espécies de Crenicichla e Teleocichla e identificar e definir unidades monofiléticas dentro desse grupo, com base na análise cladística de caracteres morfológicos. Como objetivo secundário, são testadas as recentes hipóteses de relações filogenéticas dessas espécies com as demais espécies de ciclídeos neotropicais. Foram incluídas todas as espécies válidas de Teleocichla e 54 espécies válidas de Crenicichla (60% das espécies válidas), além de uma espécie nova de Teleocichla e cinco prováveis espécies novas de Crenicichla. 20 representantes de diferentes linhagens de Cichlinae foram incluídos, totalizando 88 táxons terminais. As análises cladísticas foram realizadas a partir de uma matriz com 211 caracteres provenientes do estudo comparado de morfologia externa, incluindo padrões de colorido e osteologia. Além da análise com pesagens igualitárias, foram explorados também os resultados das análises com pesagem implícita utilizando diferentes valores da variável k e com pesagem sucessiva. A partir da comparação e discussão dos resultados obtidos a partir das diferentes análises, a topologia obtida através da análise com pesagem implícita utilizando o valor de k=3 foi escolhida para obtenção das inferências filogenéticas. Duas classificações alternativas foram discutidas e, a fim de minimizar mudanças nomenclaturais, aquela baseada no reconhecimento de subgêneros de Crenicichla correspondendo aos grupos monofiléticos encontrados foi preferida em detrimento da proposta baseada no reconhecimento de vários gêneros. Isso porque o posicionamento de Crenicichla macrophthalma (espécie-tipo de Crenicichla) continua sendo considerado instável. O gênero Crenicichla é corroborado como um grande clado formado por todas as espécies de Crenicichla e Teleocichla incluídas e é sustentado por 40 sinapomorfias não-ambíguas. Um complexo cenário foi encontrado quanto às relações entre as espécies de Crenicichla, com várias linhagens dentro desse grande grupo, assim como era previsto de acordo com estudos filogenéticos prévios. As relações entre essas linhagens, por outro lado, são ainda instáveis, podendo variar de acordo com os diferentes tipos de pesagem aplicados e apresentam algumas divergências em relação aos estudos prévios, que também divergem entre si. Teleocichla é um grupo monofilético dentro de Crenicichla e foi considerado como um de seus oito subgêneros. O subgênero Crenicichla é constituído apenas por Crenicichla macrophthalma. Os seis subgêneros restantes (Wallaciia, Batrachops, Hemeraia, Saxatilia, Lugubria e Lacustria) correspondem totalmente ou parcialmente a grupos de espécies de Crenicichla previamente existentes na literatura. Em Lacustria, quatro complexos de espécies foram delimitados: C. missioneira, C. scotti, C. jaguarensis e C. lacustris sensu stricto. Foram listadas as espécies nominais de cada subgênero e uma diagnose para auxiliar a identificação dos mesmos foi elaborada. Uma nova hipótese de relações de Crenicichla em Cichlinae é inferida a partir da análise realizada, na qual Crenicichla é grupo-irmão de um clado formado por Chaetobranchus flavescens e todos os representantes de Cichlasomatini e Geophagini incluídos

Morfologia, taxonomia e análise cladística da tribo Kingsleyini (Crustacea: Decapoda: Pseudothelphusidae)

Kingsleyini corresponde a uma das cinco tribos de Pseudothelphusidae, grupo exclusivamente americano de caranguejos de água doce. Atualmente a tribo inclui 59 espécies agrupadas em 13 gêneros, com distribuição associada aos rios, riachos e igarapés das bacias do Amazonas e do Orinoco. Desde a criação de Kingsleyini o aumento de novos táxons atribuídos a esta tribo não tem sido acompanhado por estudos cladísticos. No presente trabalho é realizada a análise cladística de Kingsleyini, acompanhada de uma revisão morfológica e taxonômica do grupo. Com este propósito, foram estudados espécimes de 60 espécies representantes das cinco tribos e duas subfamílias inclusas em Pseudothelphusidae. O material estudado se encontra depositado nas coleções carcinológicas de seis instituições e inclui os tipos nominais de 29 espécies. Na revisão morfológica foram descritas e ilustradas estruturas somáticas e sexuais da morfologia externa do grupo de estudo. Os estudos morfológicos foram auxiliados por técnicas de Microscopia Electrônica de Varredura (MEV) e cortes histológicos. A partir destas observações foram propostas modificações na terminologia utilizada para denominar as estruturas do primeiro apêndice sexual masculino (primeiro gonópodo) em Kingsleyini. A parte taxonômica deste trabalho inclui chaves de identificação, mapas de distribuição, listas sinonímicas e a descrição e ilustração do primeiro apêndice sexual masculino para a grande maioria das espécies examinadas, assim como a diagnose dos gêneros considerados monofiléticos. A análise filogenética foi realizada a partir de 92 caracteres obtidos de 57 táxons terminais: 49 terminais do grupo interno (Kingsleyini) e oito do grupo-externo (representantes dos demais Pseudothelphusidae). Como resultado da análise cladística foram obtidas seis hipóteses filogenéticas igualmente parcimoniosas: todas elas apoiam o monofiletismo de Kingsleyini e a exclusão do gênero Spirocarcinus da tribo. O monofiletismo dos gêneros Fredius, Kingsleya, Eudaniela e Rodriguezus também encontra-se sustentado em todas as hipóteses filogenéticas obtidas, enquanto que os gêneros Microthelphusa, Neopseudothelphusa, Orthothelphusa e Brasiliothelphusa revelaram-se parafiléticos.

Descrição de um fóssil de Eira barbara (Carnivora, Mustelidae) do Pleistoceno final (Bacia do Acre) e morfologia comparada do sincrânio de E. barbara recente: implicações paleobiogeográficas, geográficas e taxonômicas

A espécie recente Eira barbara (Mustelidae, Carnivora) possui uma distribuição geográfica desde o México até o norte da Argentina. É um importante táxon a ser estudado como modelo anatômico dentre os mustelídeos, assim como um importante modelo para uma melhor compreensão e entendimento sobre a diversificação dos Mustelidae. Atualmente, os registros fósseis de E. barbara na América do Sul são bastante escassos e restritos às idades pleistocênicas, sendo que os estudos destes fósseis são frequentemente desprovidos de maiores esforços para realização de descrições morfológicas detalhadas e de estudos paleobiogeográficos. Assim como os estudos dos fósseis de E. barbara são limitados, constatou-se que o mesmo cenário é observado quanto aos estudos sobre a morfologia e biogeografia da espécie. Desta forma, o presente trabalho se propôs a: realizar uma revisão de todos os registros da espécie e de uma forma geral, contribuir para um melhor conhecimento sobre a morfologia sincraniana e sobre a história biogeográfica e paleobiogeográfica de E. barbara. Para tanto, os seguintes objetivos foram propostos: estudo e redescrição detalhada do fóssil UFAC-PV 036, proveniente do Pleistoceno final do Alto Rio Juruá do sudoeste da Amazônia Brasileira; descrição sincraniana comparada de estruturas morfológicas externas e internas, analisando caracteres intraespecíficos da espécie E. barbara; realização de análises multivariadas a fim de investigar variações geográficas sob o uso de caracteres craniométricos de E. barbara entre os diferentes biomas brasileiros. A revisão dos registros fósseis foi de grande importância para o estabelecimento dos verdadeiros registros de Eira na América do Sul e a redescrição de UFAC-PV 36 contribui para o melhor conhecimento morfológico e paleobiogeográfico da espécie. A descrição morfológica comparada do sincrânio de E. barbara contribui de forma significativa para o conhecimento sobre a morfologia da espécie bem como, a descrição de caracteres intraespecíficos proporcionam caracteres mais apropriados em matrizes morfológicas, fornecendo maior robustez nas análises filogenéticas futuras. Este trabalho propõe que E. barbara não possui diferenças craniométricas estatisticamente significativas entre os biomas brasileiros, porém, E. barbara caracteriza-se aqui como uma espécie dimórfica, na qual os machos possuem estruturas cranianas relativamente maiores do que as fêmeas.

Revisão da seção Spissipes de Culex (Melanoconion) (Diptera: Culicidae)

Apresenta-se estudo revisionário da Seção Spissipes de Culex (Melanoconion), onde são feitas descrições de formas adultas, incluídos as genitálias de ambos os sexos e o cibário das fêmeas. Sob o ponto de vista taxonômico, considera-se a existência atual de 22 espécies válidas das quais duas são consideradas como novas. Culex nicaroensis Duret foi retirada pois, a análise de suas características morfológicas permitiu alegar a conclusão de não pertencer ao subgênero Melanoconion, ficando sem reconhecimento subgenérico. Além disso, procedeu-se ao estabelecimento da sinonímia de Culex alvarezi Sutil Oramas, Pulido Florenzano & Amarista Menezes com Culex spissipes (Theobald). Levando em consideração vários caracteres das formas supramencionadas, pôde-se subdividir a Seção em grupos e subgrupos, mediante afinidades morfológicas que, à luz dos atuais conhecimentos, permite serem ponderadas. Sob o ponto de vista biogeográfico são apresentados os dados disponíveis, daí resultando mapas de distribuição. A importância epidemiológica desse grupo de culicídeos é apresentada mediante o levantamento dos conhecimentos obtidos até agora na literatura. Foram elaboradas chaves para identificação específica.

Biosystematics of the Genus Andryala L. (Asteraceae)

Andryala (Asteraceae: Cichorieae) is a little-known Mediterranean-Macaronesian genus whose taxonomy is much in need of revision. The aim of the present biosystematic study was to elucidate species relationships within this genus based on morphological and molecular data. In this study several taxa are recognised: 17 species, 14 subspecies, and 3 hybrids. Among these, 5 species are Macaronesian endemics (A. glandulosa, A. sparsiflora, A. crithmifolia Aiton, A. pinnatifida, and A. perezii), 4 species are Northwest African endemics (A. mogadorensis, A. maroccana, A. chevallieri, and A. nigricans) and one species is endemic to Romania (A. laevitomentosa). Historical background regarding taxonomic delimitation in the genus is addressed from Linnaean to present day concepts, as well as the origin of the name Andryala. The origin of Asteraceae and the systematic position of Andryala is shortly summarised. The morphological study was based on a bibliographic review and the revision of 1066 specimens of 13 herbaria as well as additional material collected during fieldwork. The variability of the morphological characters of the genus, including both vegetative taxonomic characters (root, stem, leaf and indumentum characters) and reproductive ones (inflorescence, floret, fruit and pappus characters), is assessed. Numerical analysis of the morphological data was performed using different similarity or dissimilarity measures and coefficients, as well as ordination and clustering methods. Results support the segregation of the recognised taxa and the congruence of the several analyses in the separation of the recognised taxa (using quantitative, binary or multi-state characters). The proposed taxonomy for Andryala includes a new infra-generic classification, new taxa and new combinations and ranks, typifications and diagnostic keys (one for the species and several for subspecies). For each taxon a list of synonyms, typification comments and a detailed description are provided, just as comments on taxonomy and nomenclature, and a brief discussion on karyology. Additionally, information on ecology and conservation status as well as on distribution and a list of studied material are also presented. Phylogenetic analyses based on different nuclear and chloroplast DNA markers, using Bayesian and maximum parsimony methods of inference, were performed. Results support three main lineages: separate ones for the relict species A. agardhii and A. laevitomentosa and a third including the majority of the Andryala species that underwent a relatively rapid and recent speciation. They also suggest a single colonization event of Madeira and the Canary Islands from the Mediterranean region, followed by insular speciation. Biogeography and speciation within the genus are briefly discussed, including a proposal for the centre of origin of the genus and possible dispersal routes.

Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the dung beetle genus Temnoplectron Westwood (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) from Australia’s wet tropics

The landscape of the Australian Wet Tropics can be described as islands of montane rainforest Surrounded by warmer or more xeric habitats. Historical glaciation cycles have caused expansion and contraction of these rainforest islands leading to consistent patterns of genetic divergence within species of vertebrates. To explore whether this dynamic history has promoted speciation in endemic and diverse groups Of insects, we used a combination of mtDNA sequencing and morphological characters to estimate relationships and the tempo of divergence among Australian representatives of the dung beetle genus Temnoplectron. This phylogenetic hypothesis shares a number of well-supported clades with a previously published phylogenetic hypothesis based on morphological data. though statistical support for several nodes is weak. Sister species relationships well-supported in both tree topologies. and a tree obtained by combining the two data sets. suggest that speciation has mostly been allopatric. We identify a number of speciation barriers, which coincide with phylogeographic breaks found in vertebrate species. Large sequence divergences between species emphasize that speciation events are ancient (pre-Pleistocene). The flightless, rainforest species appear to have speciated rapidly. but also in the distant past. (C) 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Genes, morphology and agreement: congruence in Australian anthracine bee flies (Diptera : Bombyliidae : Anthracinae)

Almost half of the 4547 described bee flies (Bombyliidae: Diptera) in the world belong to the subfamily Anthracinae, with most of the world's diversity in three cosmopolitan tribes: Villini, Anthracini and Exoprosopini. Molecular data from 815 base pairs of 16S mitochondrial DNA and morphological characters from species-groups of these tribes in Australia were analysed cladistically. The results show that the relationships between the anthracine tribes reflect those found in a previous morphological analysis. The genera of the Anthracinae in Australia are monophyletic, except for Ligyra Newman, and are assigned to tribes. Although simultaneous analysis of the combined molecular and morphological data produced clades found in both separate analyses, the different data sources are significantly incongruent. We use phylogenetic measures to examine support for the relationships among the Australian Anthracinae inferred by the molecular and morphological data.

Dioon Lindl. (Zamiaceae): Perspectives from phylogeny and a population genetic study of Dioon edule

Dioon Lindl. (Zamiaceae) is a small genus restricted to Mexico (12 species) and Honduras (one species). Previous systematic studies have been unable to fully resolve species relationships within the genus. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted with data from several sources, including Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms from the chloroplast genome, morphology, two introns of the low copy nuclear gene S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine hydrolase (SAHH) and the 5.8S/ITS2 regions of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. The goals of the study were to construct a total evidence species level phylogeny and to explore current biogeographical hypotheses. None of the analyses performed produced a fully resolved topology. Dioon is comprised of two main lineages (the Edule and Spinulosum Clades), which represents an ancient divergence within the genus. The two introns of the nuclear gene SAHH offer additional evidence for the split into two lineages. Intron 2 contains a 18 bp deletion in the Spinulosum Clade, providing a synapomorphy for that group. The 5.8S/ITS2 regions were highly polymorphic and subsequently omitted from the combined analyses. In order to visualize congruence between morphology and molecular data, morphological characters were mapped onto the combined molecular tree. Current biogeographical hypotheses of a general northward pattern of migration and speciation are supported here. However, sister relationships within the Edule Clade are not fully resolved. Seven DNA microsatellite markers were developed to investigate patterns of genetic variation of seven populations of D. edule, a species restricted to Eastern Mexico. We found that most of the genetic variation lies within populations (Ho = 0.2166–0.3657) and that levels of population differentiation are low (Fst = 0.088); this finding is congruent with the breeding system of this species, dioicy. Four of the populations deviate from Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium and have a high number of identical genotypes, we suggest that this unexpected pattern is due to the life-history strategy of the species coupled with the few number of polymorphic loci detected in these populations. Our results are not congruent with earlier evidence from morphology and allozyme markers that suggest that the two northernmost populations represent a distinct entity that is recognized by some taxonomists as D. angustifolium.

A comprehensive and integrative reconstruction of evolutionary history for Anomura (Crustacea: Decapoda)

Background The infraorder Anomura has long captivated the attention of evolutionary biologists due to its impressive morphological diversity and ecological adaptations. To date, 2500 extant species have been described but phylogenetic relationships at high taxonomic levels remain unresolved. Here, we reconstruct the evolutionary history—phylogeny, divergence times, character evolution and diversification—of this speciose clade. For this purpose, we sequenced two mitochondrial (16S and 12S) and three nuclear (H3, 18S and 28S) markers for 19 of the 20 extant families, using traditional Sanger and next-generation 454 sequencing methods. Molecular data were combined with 156 morphological characters in order to estimate the largest anomuran phylogeny to date. The anomuran fossil record allowed us to incorporate 31 fossils for divergence time analyses. Results Our best phylogenetic hypothesis (morphological + molecular data) supports most anomuran superfamilies and families as monophyletic. However, three families and eleven genera are recovered as para- and polyphyletic. Divergence time analysis dates the origin of Anomura to the Late Permian ~259 (224–296) MYA with many of the present day families radiating during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. Ancestral state reconstruction suggests that carcinization occurred independently 3 times within the group. The invasion of freshwater and terrestrial environments both occurred between the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary. Diversification analyses found the speciation rate to be low across Anomura, and we identify 2 major changes in the tempo of diversification; the most significant at the base of a clade that includes the squat-lobster family Chirostylidae. Conclusions Our findings are compared against current classifications and previous hypotheses of anomuran relationships. Many families and genera appear to be poly- or paraphyletic suggesting a need for further taxonomic revisions at these levels. A divergence time analysis provides key insights into the origins of major lineages and events and the timing of morphological (body form) and ecological (habitat) transitions. Living anomuran biodiversity is the product of 2 major changes in the tempo of diversification; our initial insights suggest that the acquisition of a crab-like form did not act as a key innovation.