Práticas cotidianas dos conselhos tutelares: problematizando o mundo das "faltas"

Este trabalho é fruto de uma pesquisa realizada a partir de reportagens e notícias veiculadas na mídia impressa e em redes sociais, de debates com conselheiros tutelares, do encontro com colegas psicólogos que são técnicos do conselho tutelar e da minha experiência como professora da rede municipal do RJ. Para tanto, utiliza algumas ferramentas da análise institucional de origem francesa como proposta por Lapassade e Lourau e contribuições de Guatarri sobre a produção de subjetividades, de Foucault sobre a sociedade disciplinar e Deleuze sobre as sociedades de controle. Para chegar ao cotidiano dos conselhos tutelares precisamos entender que ao longo dos anos 1990, com a implantação da doutrina neoliberal que reduziu investimentos na área social e instalou o chamado Estado mínimo no Brasil, vivemos um importante paradoxo segundo o qual, de um lado, tínhamos o ECA propondo a garantia de direitos por meio da participação democrática da sociedade civil em articulação com o governo e que previa um órgão - conselho tutelar - que deveria reivindicar direitos e, de outro, a política neoliberal, com seus ideais de desmobilização política, abandono das políticas sociais, privatização e individualização. No contato com conselhos tutelares de municípios de diversas regiões do país podemos perceber que este foi rapidamente distanciado das suas motivações políticas de mobilização da sociedade civil e transformado num "balcão de atendimento" cuja principal função passou a ser o atendimento dos "casos", ou seja, das demandas que lá chegam. Isso porque a "participação institucionalizada e regulada" (SCHEINVAR e LEMOS, 2012) acabou consolidando-se, já que participar deixou de ser um ato de intervenção dos movimentos sociais para se transformar numa simples adesão a campanhas propostas pelo sistema político. Hoje, podemos dizer que os conselheiros habitam o "mundo das faltas". Sendo assim, despotencializado o movimento reivindicativo acusa-se à falta de estrutura, do espaço físico, rede de atendimento, participação na elaboração da proposta orçamentária, política pública de qualidade, remuneração adequada, etc. E quem trabalha com a falta tem sempre o mesmo público alvo: a família pobre. As análises das práticas cotidianas dos conselheiros têm mostrado que os conselhos tutelares com o passar dos anos passaram a funcionar sob o tripé vigilância, enquadramento e punição. O termo "risco social" ou "vulnerabilidade social" é a cada dia mais difundido por conselheiros tutelares e especialistas da rede de atendimento que têm utilizado esse "rótulo" visando disciplinar e homogeneizar as pessoas em suas relações familiares como forma de enquadramento social.

Direitos sociais, mínimo existencial e democracia deliberativa

O presente trabalho tem o objetivo de desenvolver uma teoria dos direitos sociais, com base na Filosofia e na Economia. São analisadas as teses de autores como Cass Sunstein, Robert Nozick, John Stuart Mill, Michael Sandel, Michael Walzer, John Rawls, Bruce Ackerman e Jürgen Habermas, construindo-se um modelo pautado pela ação comunicativa e pela participação democrática, onde o mínimo existencial ocupa lugar de destaque. São estruturadas pautas interpretativas que podem auxiliar o intérprete no seu mister, indo-se de encontro às teses expansivas que focam na exaustão orçamentária. Deve-se entender que as prestações sociais encartam-se nas complexas relações receita-despesa, o que, no Estado contemporâneo, significa que um conjunto de pessoas contribuirá, involuntariamente, para que o Poder Público aja no sentido de melhorar a situação de outras, independentemente dos motivos que levaram àquele quadro de desigualdade. O ponto é complexo, não podendo ser construído sem considerações de justiça e, particularmente, sem que todos os argumentos sejam acessíveis ao cidadão, base da construção do próprio processo democrático, que move a sociedade.

The Great Whales: History and Status of Six Species Listed as Endangered Under the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973

In the history of whaling from prehistoric to modern times, the large whales, sometimes called the “great whales,” were hunted most heavily owing in part to their corresponding value in oil, meat, and baleen. Regional populations of North Atlantic right whales, Eubalaena glacialis glacialis, were already decimated by 1700, and the North Atlantic gray whale, Eschrichtius robustus, was hunted to extinction by the early 1700’s (Mitchell and Mead1).

The Threatened Status of Steller Sea Lions, Eumetopias jubatus, under the Endangered Species Act: Effects on Alaska Groundfish Fisheries Management

In April 1990, the Steller sea lion, Eumetopias jubatus, was listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act by emergency action. Competitive interactions with the billion-dollar Alaska commercial groundfish fisheries have been suggested as one of the possible contributing factors to the Steller sea lion population decline. Since the listing, fisheries managers have attempted to address the potential impacts of the groundfish fisheries on Steller sea lion recovery. In this paper, we review pertinent Federal legislation, biological information on the Steller sea lion decline, changes in the Alaska trawl fishery for walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogramma, since the late 1970's, andpossible interactions between fisheries and sea lions. Using three cases, we illustrate how the listing of Steller sea lions has affected Alaska groundfish fisheries through: I) actions taken at the time of listing designed to limit the potential for directhuman-related sea lion mortality, 2) actions addressing spatial and temporal separation of fisheries from sea lions, and 3) introduction of risk-adverse stock assessment methodologies and Steller sea lion conservation considerations directly in the annual quota-setting process. This discussion shows some of the ways that North Pacific groundfish resource managers have begun to explicitly consider the conservation ofmarine mammal and other nontarget species.

Incentivos tributários: conceituação, limites e controle

A presente pesquisa destina-se a estudar os incentivos tributários. Espécie de norma tributária indutora, os incentivos tributários ainda não receberam a atenção devida por parte dos estudiosos do direito tributário. Atento ao volume cada vez maior de recursos envolvendo incentivos tributários, assim como a necessidade de se conferir maior transparência e responsabilidade na gestão do gasto público, esse trabalho dedica-se a estudar essa ainda pouco explorada figura, extremando-a de figuras parecidas, com as quais não raras vezes é confundida. Embora não haja uma conceituação constitucional ou legal expressa, é possível afirmar que os incentivos tributários são hipóteses de desoneração tributária, que importam em derrogações às regras gerais de tributação, com o não ingresso de recursos nos cofres públicos, de forma a estimular condutas dos contribuintes, com a finalidade de se atingir fins e objetivos constitucionais. Em virtude de sua natureza híbrida, os incentivos tributários se sujeitam a limitações constitucionais tributárias e econômicas, assim como às limitações orçamentário-financeiras. O principal instrumento de compatibilização entre os incentivos tributários, capacidade contributiva, isonomia e cânones da ordem econômica é o princípio da proporcionalidade. Poder Legislativo, Tribunal de Contas e Poder Judiciário devem fiscalizar e controlar essa espécie de desoneração tributária. O Controle a cargo Poder Legislativo (no âmbito do Poder Legislativo federal) tem deixado muito a desejar, tanto no que concerne ao controle dos limites orçamentário-financeiros, quanto no que diz respeito ao controle dos limites constitucionais tributários e econômicos. O Controle que cabe ao Tribunal de Contas (foi analisado o Tribunal de Contas da União) tem mostrado alguma evolução. Contudo, a análise de alguns julgados do TCU demonstra que há muito a melhorar, especialmente no que concerne à investigação da legitimidade e economicidade. A LRF ostenta caráter de norma geral no que tange aos requisitos para a concessão de incentivos tributários. Eventual descumprimento desses preceitos por leis locais revela verdadeira inconstitucionalidade, passível de controle pelo Poder Judiciário. A atuação do Poder Judiciário, em especial do STF, no controle dos incentivos tributários tem sido bastante tímida e pouco transparente. Na maior parte dos casos, o STF tem se limitado a reafirmar o caráter discricionário dos atos oriundos do Poder Legislativo e Executivo, negando-se a examiná-los. Os pedidos de extensão de incentivos tributários também não tem obtido sucesso, pois o STF faz aplicação irrestrita da cláusula do legislador negativo. Uma solução conciliadora seria o judiciário se valer da declaração de inconstitucionalidade sem a pronúncia de nulidade, permitindo a extensão dos incentivos tributários àqueles casos em que a ilegalidade não reside no incentivo em si mesmo, mas na sua não aplicação aos contribuintes em mesma situação. Muito embora existam limites bem definidos, é possível afirmar que o controle dos incentivos tributários precisa evoluir muito.

Pacific Salmon, Oncorhynchus spp., and the Definition of "Species" Under the Endangered Species Act

For purposes ofthe Endangered Species Act (ESA), a "species" is defined to include "any distinct population segment of any species of vertebrate fish or wildlife which interbreeds when mature. "Federal agencies charged with carrying out the provisions of the ESA have struggled for over a decade to develop a consistent approach for interpreting the term "distinct population segment." This paper outlines such an approach and explains in some detail how it can be applied to ESA evaluations of anadromous Pacific salmonids. The following definition is proposed: A population (or group of populations) will be considered "distinct" (and hence a "species ")for purposes of the ESA if it represents an evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) of the biological species. A population must satisfy two criteria to be considered an ESU: 1) It must be substantially reproductively isolated from other conspecific population units, and 2) It must represent an important component in the evolutionary legacy of the species. Isolation does not have to be absolute, but it must be strong enough to permit evolutionarily important differences to accrue in different population units. The second criterion would be met if the population contributes substantially to the ecological/genetic diversity of the species as a whole. Insights into the extent of reproductive isolation can be provided by movements of tagged fish, natural recolonization rates observed in other populations, measurements of genetic differences between populations, and evaluations of the efficacy of natural barriers. Each of these methods has its limitations. Identification of physical barriers to genetic exchange can help define the geographic extent of distinct populations, but reliance on physical features alone can be misleading in the absence of supporting biological information. Physical tags provide information about the movements of individual fish but not the genetic consequences of migration. Furthermore, measurements ofc urrent straying or recolonization rates provide no direct information about the magnitude or consistency of such rates in the past. In this respect, data from protein electrophoresis or DNA analyses can be very useful because they reflect levels of gene flow that have occurred over evolutionary time scales. The best strategy is to use all available lines of evidence for or against reproductive isolation, recognizing the limitations of each and taking advantage of the often complementary nature of the different types of information. If available evidence indicates significant reproductive isolation, the next step is to determine whether the population in question is of substantial ecological/genetic importance to the species as a whole. In other words, if the population became extinct, would this event represent a significant loss to the ecological/genetic diversity of thes pecies? In making this determination, the following questions are relevant: 1) Is the population genetically distinct from other conspecific populations? 2) Does the population occupy unusual or distinctive habitat? 3) Does the population show evidence of unusual or distinctive adaptation to its environment? Several types of information are useful in addressing these questions. Again, the strengths and limitations of each should be kept in mind in making the evaluation. Phenotypic/life-history traits such as size, fecundity, and age and time of spawning may reflect local adaptations of evolutionary importance, but interpretation of these traits is complicated by their sensitivity to environmental conditions. Data from protein electrophoresis or DNA analyses provide valuable insight into theprocessofgenetic differentiation among populations but little direct information regarding the extent of adaptive genetic differences. Habitat differences suggest the possibility for local adaptations but do not prove that such adaptations exist. The framework suggested here provides a focal point for accomplishing the majorgoal of the Act-to conserve the genetic diversity of species and the ecosystems they inhabit. At the same time, it allows discretion in the listing of populations by requiring that they represent units of real evolutionary significance to the species. Further, this framework provides a means of addressing several issues of particular concern for Pacific salmon, including anadromous/nonanadromous population segments, differences in run-timing, groups of populations, introduced populations, and the role of hatchery fish.

Human muscle spindles act as forward sensory models.

Modern theories of motor control incorporate forward models that combine sensory information and motor commands to predict future sensory states. Such models circumvent unavoidable neural delays associated with on-line feedback control. Here we show that signals in human muscle spindle afferents during unconstrained wrist and finger movements predict future kinematic states of their parent muscle. Specifically, we show that the discharges of type Ia afferents are best correlated with the velocity of length changes in their parent muscles approximately 100-160 ms in the future and that their discharges vary depending on motor sequences in a way that cannot be explained by the state of their parent muscle alone. We therefore conclude that muscle spindles can act as "forward sensory models": they are affected both by the current state of their parent muscle and by efferent (fusimotor) control, and their discharges represent future kinematic states. If this conjecture is correct, then sensorimotor learning implies learning how to control not only the skeletal muscles but also the fusimotor system.

Bycatch provisions in the reauthorized Magnuson-Stevens Act

Bycatch can harm marine ecosystems, reduce biodiversity, lead to injury or mortality of protected species, and have severe economic implications for fisheries. On 12 January 2007, President George W. Bush signed the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006 (MSRA). The MSRA required the U.S. Secretary of Commerce (Secretary) to establish a Bycatch Reduction Engineering Program (BREP) to develop technological devices and other conservation engineering changes designed to minimize bycatch, seabird interactions, bycatch mortality, and post-release mortality in Federally managed fisheries. The MSRA also required the Secretary to identify nations whose vessels are engaged in the bycatch of protected living marine resources (PLMR’s) under specified circumstances and to certify that these nations have 1) adopted regulatory programs for PLMR’s that are comparable to U.S. programs, taking into account different conditions, and 2) established management plans for PLMR’s that assist in the collection of data to support assessments and conservation of these resources. If a nation fails to take sufficient corrective action and does not receive a positive certification, fishing products from that country may be subject to import prohibitions into the United States. The BREP has made significant progress to develop technological devices and other conservation engineering designed to minimize bycatch, including improvements to bycatch reduction devices and turtle excluder devices in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico trawl fisheries, gillnets in Northeast fisheries, and trawls in Alaska and Pacific Northwest fisheries. In addition, the international provisions of the MSRA have provided an innovative tool through which the United States can address bycatch by foreign nations. However, the inability of the National Marine Fisheries Service to identify nations whose vessels are engaged in the bycatch of PLMR’s to date will require the development of additional approaches to meet this mandate.

Motor coordination: when two have to act as one.

Trying to pass someone walking toward you in a narrow corridor is a familiar example of a two-person motor game that requires coordination. In this study, we investigate coordination in sensorimotor tasks that correspond to classic coordination games with multiple Nash equilibria, such as "choosing sides," "stag hunt," "chicken," and "battle of sexes". In these tasks, subjects made reaching movements reflecting their continuously evolving "decisions" while they received a continuous payoff in the form of a resistive force counteracting their movements. Successful coordination required two subjects to "choose" the same Nash equilibrium in this force-payoff landscape within a single reach. We found that on the majority of trials coordination was achieved. Compared to the proportion of trials in which miscoordination occurred, successful coordination was characterized by several distinct features: an increased mutual information between the players' movement endpoints, an increased joint entropy during the movements, and by differences in the timing of the players' responses. Moreover, we found that the probability of successful coordination depends on the players' initial distance from the Nash equilibria. Our results suggest that two-person coordination arises naturally in motor interactions and is facilitated by favorable initial positions, stereotypical motor pattern, and differences in response times.