GA approach for finding Rough Set decision rules based on bireducts

Feature selection plays an important role in knowledge discovery and data mining nowadays. In traditional rough set theory, feature selection using reduct - the minimal discerning set of attributes - is an important area. Nevertheless, the original definition of a reduct is restrictive, so in one of the previous research it was proposed to take into account not only the horizontal reduction of information by feature selection, but also a vertical reduction considering suitable subsets of the original set of objects. Following the work mentioned above, a new approach to generate bireducts using a multi--objective genetic algorithm was proposed. Although the genetic algorithms were used to calculate reduct in some previous works, we did not find any work where genetic algorithms were adopted to calculate bireducts. Compared to the works done before in this area, the proposed method has less randomness in generating bireducts. The genetic algorithm system estimated a quality of each bireduct by values of two objective functions as evolution progresses, so consequently a set of bireducts with optimized values of these objectives was obtained. Different fitness evaluation methods and genetic operators, such as crossover and mutation, were applied and the prediction accuracies were compared. Five datasets were used to test the proposed method and two datasets were used to perform a comparison study. Statistical analysis using the one-way ANOVA test was performed to determine the significant difference between the results. The experiment showed that the proposed method was able to reduce the number of bireducts necessary in order to receive a good prediction accuracy. Also, the influence of different genetic operators and fitness evaluation strategies on the prediction accuracy was analyzed. It was shown that the prediction accuracies of the proposed method are comparable with the best results in machine learning literature, and some of them outperformed it.

Apprentissage machine efficace : théorie et pratique

Malgré des progrès constants en termes de capacité de calcul, mémoire et quantité de données disponibles, les algorithmes d'apprentissage machine doivent se montrer efficaces dans l'utilisation de ces ressources. La minimisation des coûts est évidemment un facteur important, mais une autre motivation est la recherche de mécanismes d'apprentissage capables de reproduire le comportement d'êtres intelligents. Cette thèse aborde le problème de l'efficacité à travers plusieurs articles traitant d'algorithmes d'apprentissage variés : ce problème est vu non seulement du point de vue de l'efficacité computationnelle (temps de calcul et mémoire utilisés), mais aussi de celui de l'efficacité statistique (nombre d'exemples requis pour accomplir une tâche donnée). Une première contribution apportée par cette thèse est la mise en lumière d'inefficacités statistiques dans des algorithmes existants. Nous montrons ainsi que les arbres de décision généralisent mal pour certains types de tâches (chapitre 3), de même que les algorithmes classiques d'apprentissage semi-supervisé à base de graphe (chapitre 5), chacun étant affecté par une forme particulière de la malédiction de la dimensionalité. Pour une certaine classe de réseaux de neurones, appelés réseaux sommes-produits, nous montrons qu'il peut être exponentiellement moins efficace de représenter certaines fonctions par des réseaux à une seule couche cachée, comparé à des réseaux profonds (chapitre 4). Nos analyses permettent de mieux comprendre certains problèmes intrinsèques liés à ces algorithmes, et d'orienter la recherche dans des directions qui pourraient permettre de les résoudre. Nous identifions également des inefficacités computationnelles dans les algorithmes d'apprentissage semi-supervisé à base de graphe (chapitre 5), et dans l'apprentissage de mélanges de Gaussiennes en présence de valeurs manquantes (chapitre 6). Dans les deux cas, nous proposons de nouveaux algorithmes capables de traiter des ensembles de données significativement plus grands. Les deux derniers chapitres traitent de l'efficacité computationnelle sous un angle différent. Dans le chapitre 7, nous analysons de manière théorique un algorithme existant pour l'apprentissage efficace dans les machines de Boltzmann restreintes (la divergence contrastive), afin de mieux comprendre les raisons qui expliquent le succès de cet algorithme. Finalement, dans le chapitre 8 nous présentons une application de l'apprentissage machine dans le domaine des jeux vidéo, pour laquelle le problème de l'efficacité computationnelle est relié à des considérations d'ingénierie logicielle et matérielle, souvent ignorées en recherche mais ô combien importantes en pratique.

Modélisation des émotions de l’apprenant et interventions implicites pour les systèmes tutoriels intelligents

La modélisation de l’expérience de l’utilisateur dans les Interactions Homme-Machine est un enjeu important pour la conception et le développement des systèmes adaptatifs intelligents. Dans ce contexte, une attention particulière est portée sur les réactions émotionnelles de l’utilisateur, car elles ont une influence capitale sur ses aptitudes cognitives, comme la perception et la prise de décision. La modélisation des émotions est particulièrement pertinente pour les Systèmes Tutoriels Émotionnellement Intelligents (STEI). Ces systèmes cherchent à identifier les émotions de l’apprenant lors des sessions d’apprentissage, et à optimiser son expérience d’interaction en recourant à diverses stratégies d’interventions. Cette thèse vise à améliorer les méthodes de modélisation des émotions et les stratégies émotionnelles utilisées actuellement par les STEI pour agir sur les émotions de l’apprenant. Plus précisément, notre premier objectif a été de proposer une nouvelle méthode pour détecter l’état émotionnel de l’apprenant, en utilisant différentes sources d’informations qui permettent de mesurer les émotions de façon précise, tout en tenant compte des variables individuelles qui peuvent avoir un impact sur la manifestation des émotions. Pour ce faire, nous avons développé une approche multimodale combinant plusieurs mesures physiologiques (activité cérébrale, réactions galvaniques et rythme cardiaque) avec des variables individuelles, pour détecter une émotion très fréquemment observée lors des sessions d’apprentissage, à savoir l’incertitude. Dans un premier lieu, nous avons identifié les indicateurs physiologiques clés qui sont associés à cet état, ainsi que les caractéristiques individuelles qui contribuent à sa manifestation. Puis, nous avons développé des modèles prédictifs permettant de détecter automatiquement cet état à partir des différentes variables analysées, à travers l’entrainement d’algorithmes d’apprentissage machine. Notre deuxième objectif a été de proposer une approche unifiée pour reconnaître simultanément une combinaison de plusieurs émotions, et évaluer explicitement l’impact de ces émotions sur l’expérience d’interaction de l’apprenant. Pour cela, nous avons développé une plateforme hiérarchique, probabiliste et dynamique permettant de suivre les changements émotionnels de l'apprenant au fil du temps, et d’inférer automatiquement la tendance générale qui caractérise son expérience d’interaction à savoir : l’immersion, le blocage ou le décrochage. L’immersion correspond à une expérience optimale : un état dans lequel l'apprenant est complètement concentré et impliqué dans l’activité d’apprentissage. L’état de blocage correspond à une tendance d’interaction non optimale où l'apprenant a de la difficulté à se concentrer. Finalement, le décrochage correspond à un état extrêmement défavorable où l’apprenant n’est plus du tout impliqué dans l’activité d’apprentissage. La plateforme proposée intègre trois modalités de variables diagnostiques permettant d’évaluer l’expérience de l’apprenant à savoir : des variables physiologiques, des variables comportementales, et des mesures de performance, en combinaison avec des variables prédictives qui représentent le contexte courant de l’interaction et les caractéristiques personnelles de l'apprenant. Une étude a été réalisée pour valider notre approche à travers un protocole expérimental permettant de provoquer délibérément les trois tendances ciblées durant l’interaction des apprenants avec différents environnements d’apprentissage. Enfin, notre troisième objectif a été de proposer de nouvelles stratégies pour influencer positivement l’état émotionnel de l’apprenant, sans interrompre la dynamique de la session d’apprentissage. Nous avons à cette fin introduit le concept de stratégies émotionnelles implicites : une nouvelle approche pour agir subtilement sur les émotions de l’apprenant, dans le but d’améliorer son expérience d’apprentissage. Ces stratégies utilisent la perception subliminale, et plus précisément une technique connue sous le nom d’amorçage affectif. Cette technique permet de solliciter inconsciemment les émotions de l’apprenant, à travers la projection d’amorces comportant certaines connotations affectives. Nous avons mis en œuvre une stratégie émotionnelle implicite utilisant une forme particulière d’amorçage affectif à savoir : le conditionnement évaluatif, qui est destiné à améliorer de façon inconsciente l’estime de soi. Une étude expérimentale a été réalisée afin d’évaluer l’impact de cette stratégie sur les réactions émotionnelles et les performances des apprenants.

The use of artificial intelligence algorithms to guide surgical treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis

La scoliose idiopathique de l’adolescent (SIA) est une déformation tri-dimensionelle du rachis. Son traitement comprend l’observation, l’utilisation de corsets pour limiter sa progression ou la chirurgie pour corriger la déformation squelettique et cesser sa progression. Le traitement chirurgical reste controversé au niveau des indications, mais aussi de la chirurgie à entreprendre. Malgré la présence de classifications pour guider le traitement de la SIA, une variabilité dans la stratégie opératoire intra et inter-observateur a été décrite dans la littérature. Cette variabilité s’accentue d’autant plus avec l’évolution des techniques chirurgicales et de l’instrumentation disponible. L’avancement de la technologie et son intégration dans le milieu médical a mené à l’utilisation d’algorithmes d’intelligence artificielle informatiques pour aider la classification et l’évaluation tridimensionnelle de la scoliose. Certains algorithmes ont démontré être efficace pour diminuer la variabilité dans la classification de la scoliose et pour guider le traitement. L’objectif général de cette thèse est de développer une application utilisant des outils d’intelligence artificielle pour intégrer les données d’un nouveau patient et les évidences disponibles dans la littérature pour guider le traitement chirurgical de la SIA. Pour cela une revue de la littérature sur les applications existantes dans l’évaluation de la SIA fut entreprise pour rassembler les éléments qui permettraient la mise en place d’une application efficace et acceptée dans le milieu clinique. Cette revue de la littérature nous a permis de réaliser que l’existence de “black box” dans les applications développées est une limitation pour l’intégration clinique ou la justification basée sur les évidence est essentielle. Dans une première étude nous avons développé un arbre décisionnel de classification de la scoliose idiopathique basé sur la classification de Lenke qui est la plus communément utilisée de nos jours mais a été critiquée pour sa complexité et la variabilité inter et intra-observateur. Cet arbre décisionnel a démontré qu’il permet d’augmenter la précision de classification proportionnellement au temps passé à classifier et ce indépendamment du niveau de connaissance sur la SIA. Dans une deuxième étude, un algorithme de stratégies chirurgicales basé sur des règles extraites de la littérature a été développé pour guider les chirurgiens dans la sélection de l’approche et les niveaux de fusion pour la SIA. Lorsque cet algorithme est appliqué à une large base de donnée de 1556 cas de SIA, il est capable de proposer une stratégie opératoire similaire à celle d’un chirurgien expert dans prêt de 70% des cas. Cette étude a confirmé la possibilité d’extraire des stratégies opératoires valides à l’aide d’un arbre décisionnel utilisant des règles extraites de la littérature. Dans une troisième étude, la classification de 1776 patients avec la SIA à l’aide d’une carte de Kohonen, un type de réseaux de neurone a permis de démontrer qu’il existe des scoliose typiques (scoliose à courbes uniques ou double thoracique) pour lesquelles la variabilité dans le traitement chirurgical varie peu des recommandations par la classification de Lenke tandis que les scolioses a courbes multiples ou tangentielles à deux groupes de courbes typiques étaient celles avec le plus de variation dans la stratégie opératoire. Finalement, une plateforme logicielle a été développée intégrant chacune des études ci-dessus. Cette interface logicielle permet l’entrée de données radiologiques pour un patient scoliotique, classifie la SIA à l’aide de l’arbre décisionnel de classification et suggère une approche chirurgicale basée sur l’arbre décisionnel de stratégies opératoires. Une analyse de la correction post-opératoire obtenue démontre une tendance, bien que non-statistiquement significative, à une meilleure balance chez les patients opérés suivant la stratégie recommandée par la plateforme logicielle que ceux aillant un traitement différent. Les études exposées dans cette thèse soulignent que l’utilisation d’algorithmes d’intelligence artificielle dans la classification et l’élaboration de stratégies opératoires de la SIA peuvent être intégrées dans une plateforme logicielle et pourraient assister les chirurgiens dans leur planification préopératoire.

Significance Of Classification Techniques In Prediction Of Learning Disabilities

The aim of this study is to show the importance of two classification techniques, viz. decision tree and clustering, in prediction of learning disabilities (LD) of school-age children. LDs affect about 10 percent of all children enrolled in schools. The problems of children with specific learning disabilities have been a cause of concern to parents and teachers for some time. Decision trees and clustering are powerful and popular tools used for classification and prediction in Data mining. Different rules extracted from the decision tree are used for prediction of learning disabilities. Clustering is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets, called clusters, which are useful in finding the different signs and symptoms (attributes) present in the LD affected child. In this paper, J48 algorithm is used for constructing the decision tree and K-means algorithm is used for creating the clusters. By applying these classification techniques, LD in any child can be identified

Learning Commonsense Categorical Knowledge in a Thread Memory System

If we are to understand how we can build machines capable of broad purpose learning and reasoning, we must first aim to build systems that can represent, acquire, and reason about the kinds of commonsense knowledge that we humans have about the world. This endeavor suggests steps such as identifying the kinds of knowledge people commonly have about the world, constructing suitable knowledge representations, and exploring the mechanisms that people use to make judgments about the everyday world. In this work, I contribute to these goals by proposing an architecture for a system that can learn commonsense knowledge about the properties and behavior of objects in the world. The architecture described here augments previous machine learning systems in four ways: (1) it relies on a seven dimensional notion of context, built from information recently given to the system, to learn and reason about objects' properties; (2) it has multiple methods that it can use to reason about objects, so that when one method fails, it can fall back on others; (3) it illustrates the usefulness of reasoning about objects by thinking about their similarity to other, better known objects, and by inferring properties of objects from the categories that they belong to; and (4) it represents an attempt to build an autonomous learner and reasoner, that sets its own goals for learning about the world and deduces new facts by reflecting on its acquired knowledge. This thesis describes this architecture, as well as a first implementation, that can learn from sentences such as ``A blue bird flew to the tree'' and ``The small bird flew to the cage'' that birds can fly. One of the main contributions of this work lies in suggesting a further set of salient ideas about how we can build broader purpose commonsense artificial learners and reasoners.

PDM 2006: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Data Mining

Recently major processor manufacturers have announced a dramatic shift in their paradigm to increase computing power over the coming years. Instead of focusing on faster clock speeds and more powerful single core CPUs, the trend clearly goes towards multi core systems. This will also result in a paradigm shift for the development of algorithms for computationally expensive tasks, such as data mining applications. Obviously, work on parallel algorithms is not new per se but concentrated efforts in the many application domains are still missing. Multi-core systems, but also clusters of workstations and even large-scale distributed computing infrastructures provide new opportunities and pose new challenges for the design of parallel and distributed algorithms. Since data mining and machine learning systems rely on high performance computing systems, research on the corresponding algorithms must be on the forefront of parallel algorithm research in order to keep pushing data mining and machine learning applications to be more powerful and, especially for the former, interactive. To bring together researchers and practitioners working in this exciting field, a workshop on parallel data mining was organized as part of PKDD/ECML 2006 (Berlin, Germany). The six contributions selected for the program describe various aspects of data mining and machine learning approaches featuring low to high degrees of parallelism: The first contribution focuses the classic problem of distributed association rule mining and focuses on communication efficiency to improve the state of the art. After this a parallelization technique for speeding up decision tree construction by means of thread-level parallelism for shared memory systems is presented. The next paper discusses the design of a parallel approach for dis- tributed memory systems of the frequent subgraphs mining problem. This approach is based on a hierarchical communication topology to solve issues related to multi-domain computational envi- ronments. The forth paper describes the combined use and the customization of software packages to facilitate a top down parallelism in the tuning of Support Vector Machines (SVM) and the next contribution presents an interesting idea concerning parallel training of Conditional Random Fields (CRFs) and motivates their use in labeling sequential data. The last contribution finally focuses on very efficient feature selection. It describes a parallel algorithm for feature selection from random subsets. Selecting the papers included in this volume would not have been possible without the help of an international Program Committee that has provided detailed reviews for each paper. We would like to also thank Matthew Otey who helped with publicity for the workshop.

eRules: a modular adaptive classification rule learning algorithm for data streams

Advances in hardware and software in the past decade allow to capture, record and process fast data streams at a large scale. The research area of data stream mining has emerged as a consequence from these advances in order to cope with the real time analysis of potentially large and changing data streams. Examples of data streams include Google searches, credit card transactions, telemetric data and data of continuous chemical production processes. In some cases the data can be processed in batches by traditional data mining approaches. However, in some applications it is required to analyse the data in real time as soon as it is being captured. Such cases are for example if the data stream is infinite, fast changing, or simply too large in size to be stored. One of the most important data mining techniques on data streams is classification. This involves training the classifier on the data stream in real time and adapting it to concept drifts. Most data stream classifiers are based on decision trees. However, it is well known in the data mining community that there is no single optimal algorithm. An algorithm may work well on one or several datasets but badly on others. This paper introduces eRules, a new rule based adaptive classifier for data streams, based on an evolving set of Rules. eRules induces a set of rules that is constantly evaluated and adapted to changes in the data stream by adding new and removing old rules. It is different from the more popular decision tree based classifiers as it tends to leave data instances rather unclassified than forcing a classification that could be wrong. The ongoing development of eRules aims to improve its accuracy further through dynamic parameter setting which will also address the problem of changing feature domain values.

A scalable expressive ensemble learning using Random Prism: a MapReduce approach

The induction of classification rules from previously unseen examples is one of the most important data mining tasks in science as well as commercial applications. In order to reduce the influence of noise in the data, ensemble learners are often applied. However, most ensemble learners are based on decision tree classifiers which are affected by noise. The Random Prism classifier has recently been proposed as an alternative to the popular Random Forests classifier, which is based on decision trees. Random Prism is based on the Prism family of algorithms, which is more robust to noise. However, like most ensemble classification approaches, Random Prism also does not scale well on large training data. This paper presents a thorough discussion of Random Prism and a recently proposed parallel version of it called Parallel Random Prism. Parallel Random Prism is based on the MapReduce programming paradigm. The paper provides, for the first time, novel theoretical analysis of the proposed technique and in-depth experimental study that show that Parallel Random Prism scales well on a large number of training examples, a large number of data features and a large number of processors. Expressiveness of decision rules that our technique produces makes it a natural choice for Big Data applications where informed decision making increases the user’s trust in the system.

Building binary-tree-based multiclass classifiers using separability measures

Various popular machine learning techniques, like support vector machines, are originally conceived for the solution of two-class (binary) classification problems. However, a large number of real problems present more than two classes. A common approach to generalize binary learning techniques to solve problems with more than two classes, also known as multiclass classification problems, consists of hierarchically decomposing the multiclass problem into multiple binary sub-problems, whose outputs are combined to define the predicted class. This strategy results in a tree of binary classifiers, where each internal node corresponds to a binary classifier distinguishing two groups of classes and the leaf nodes correspond to the problem classes. This paper investigates how measures of the separability between classes can be employed in the construction of binary-tree-based multiclass classifiers, adapting the decompositions performed to each particular multiclass problem. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Visualization of spirography-based objective measures in Parkinson's disease

Objective: To investigate whether advanced visualizations of spirography-based objective measures are useful in differentiating drug-related motor dysfunctions between Off and dyskinesia in Parkinson’s disease (PD). Background: During the course of a 3 year longitudinal clinical study, in total 65 patients (43 males and 22 females with mean age of 65) with advanced PD and 10 healthy elderly (HE) subjects (5 males and 5 females with mean age of 61) were assessed. Both patients and HE subjects performed repeated and time-stamped assessments of their objective health indicators using a test battery implemented on a telemetry touch screen handheld computer, in their home environment settings. Among other tasks, the subjects were asked to trace a pre-drawn Archimedes spiral using the dominant hand and repeat the test three times per test occasion. Methods: A web-based framework was developed to enable a visual exploration of relevant spirography-based kinematic features by clinicians so they can in turn evaluate the motor states of the patients i.e. Off and dyskinesia. The system uses different visualization techniques such as time series plots, animation, and interaction and organizes them into different views to aid clinicians in measuring spatial and time-dependent irregularities that could be associated with the motor states. Along with the animation view, the system displays two time series plots for representing drawing speed (blue line) and displacement from ideal trajectory (orange line). The views are coordinated and linked i.e. user interactions in one of the views will be reflected in other views. For instance, when the user points in one of the pixels in the spiral view, the circle size of the underlying pixel increases and a vertical line appears in the time series views to depict the corresponding position. In addition, in order to enable clinicians to observe erratic movements more clearly and thus improve the detection of irregularities, the system displays a color-map which gives an idea of the longevity of the spirography task. Figure 2 shows single randomly selected spirals drawn by a: A) patient who experienced dyskinesias, B) HE subject, and C) patient in Off state. Results: According to a domain expert (DN), the spirals drawn in the Off and dyskinesia motor states are characterized by different spatial and time features. For instance, the spiral shown in Fig. 2A was drawn by a patient who showed symptoms of dyskinesia; the drawing speed was relatively high (cf. blue-colored time series plot and the short timestamp scale in the x axis) and the spatial displacement was high (cf. orange-colored time series plot) associated with smooth deviations as a result of uncontrollable movements. The patient also exhibited low amount of hesitation which could be reflected both in the animation of the spiral as well as time series plots. In contrast, the patient who was in the Off state exhibited different kinematic features, as shown in Fig. 2C. In the case of spirals drawn by a HE subject, there was a great precision during the drawing process as well as unchanging levels of time-dependent features over the test trial, as seen in Fig. 2B. Conclusions: Visualizing spirography-based objective measures enables identification of trends and patterns of drug-related motor dysfunctions at the patient’s individual level. Dynamic access of visualized motor tests may be useful during the evaluation of drug-related complications such as under- and over-medications, providing decision support to clinicians during evaluation of treatment effects as well as improve the quality of life of patients and their caregivers. In future, we plan to evaluate the proposed approach by assessing within- and between-clinician variability in ratings in order to determine its actual usefulness and then use these ratings as target outcomes in supervised machine learning, similarly as it was previously done in the study performed by Memedi et al. (2013).

First-principle data-driven models for assessment of motor disorders in Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an increasing neurological disorder in an aging society. The motor and non-motor symptoms of PD advance with the disease progression and occur in varying frequency and duration. In order to affirm the full extent of a patient’s condition, repeated assessments are necessary to adjust medical prescription. In clinical studies, symptoms are assessed using the unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale (UPDRS). On one hand, the subjective rating using UPDRS relies on clinical expertise. On the other hand, it requires the physical presence of patients in clinics which implies high logistical costs. Another limitation of clinical assessment is that the observation in hospital may not accurately represent a patient’s situation at home. For such reasons, the practical frequency of tracking PD symptoms may under-represent the true time scale of PD fluctuations and may result in an overall inaccurate assessment. Current technologies for at-home PD treatment are based on data-driven approaches for which the interpretation and reproduction of results are problematic.  The overall objective of this thesis is to develop and evaluate unobtrusive computer methods for enabling remote monitoring of patients with PD. It investigates first-principle data-driven model based novel signal and image processing techniques for extraction of clinically useful information from audio recordings of speech (in texts read aloud) and video recordings of gait and finger-tapping motor examinations. The aim is to map between PD symptoms severities estimated using novel computer methods and the clinical ratings based on UPDRS part-III (motor examination). A web-based test battery system consisting of self-assessment of symptoms and motor function tests was previously constructed for a touch screen mobile device. A comprehensive speech framework has been developed for this device to analyze text-dependent running speech by: (1) extracting novel signal features that are able to represent PD deficits in each individual component of the speech system, (2) mapping between clinical ratings and feature estimates of speech symptom severity, and (3) classifying between UPDRS part-III severity levels using speech features and statistical machine learning tools. A novel speech processing method called cepstral separation difference showed stronger ability to classify between speech symptom severities as compared to existing features of PD speech. In the case of finger tapping, the recorded videos of rapid finger tapping examination were processed using a novel computer-vision (CV) algorithm that extracts symptom information from video-based tapping signals using motion analysis of the index-finger which incorporates a face detection module for signal calibration. This algorithm was able to discriminate between UPDRS part III severity levels of finger tapping with high classification rates. Further analysis was performed on novel CV based gait features constructed using a standard human model to discriminate between a healthy gait and a Parkinsonian gait. The findings of this study suggest that the symptom severity levels in PD can be discriminated with high accuracies by involving a combination of first-principle (features) and data-driven (classification) approaches. The processing of audio and video recordings on one hand allows remote monitoring of speech, gait and finger-tapping examinations by the clinical staff. On the other hand, the first-principles approach eases the understanding of symptom estimates for clinicians. We have demonstrated that the selected features of speech, gait and finger tapping were able to discriminate between symptom severity levels, as well as, between healthy controls and PD patients with high classification rates. The findings support suitability of these methods to be used as decision support tools in the context of PD assessment.

Automatic spiral analysis for objective assessment of motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease

Objective: To develop a method for objective quantification of PD motor symptoms related to Off episodes and peak dose dyskinesias, using spiral data gathered by using a touch screen telemetry device. The aim was to objectively characterize predominant motor phenotypes (bradykinesia and dyskinesia), to help in automating the process of visual interpretation of movement anomalies in spirals as rated by movement disorder specialists. Background: A retrospective analysis was conducted on recordings from 65 patients with advanced idiopathic PD from nine different clinics in Sweden, recruited from January 2006 until August 2010. In addition to the patient group, 10 healthy elderly subjects were recruited. Upper limb movement data were collected using a touch screen telemetry device from home environments of the subjects. Measurements with the device were performed four times per day during week-long test periods. On each test occasion, the subjects were asked to trace pre-drawn Archimedean spirals, using the dominant hand. The pre-drawn spiral was shown on the screen of the device. The spiral test was repeated three times per test occasion and they were instructed to complete it within 10 seconds. The device had a sampling rate of 10Hz and measured both position and time-stamps (in milliseconds) of the pen tip. Methods: Four independent raters (FB, DH, AJ and DN) used a web interface that animated the spiral drawings and allowed them to observe different kinematic features during the drawing process and to rate task performance. Initially, a number of kinematic features were assessed including ‘impairment’, ‘speed’, ‘irregularity’ and ‘hesitation’ followed by marking the predominant motor phenotype on a 3-category scale: tremor, bradykinesia and/or choreatic dyskinesia. There were only 2 test occasions for which all the four raters either classified them as tremor or could not identify the motor phenotype. Therefore, the two main motor phenotype categories were bradykinesia and dyskinesia. ‘Impairment’ was rated on a scale from 0 (no impairment) to 10 (extremely severe) whereas ‘speed’, ‘irregularity’ and ‘hesitation’ were rated on a scale from 0 (normal) to 4 (extremely severe). The proposed data-driven method consisted of the following steps. Initially, 28 spatiotemporal features were extracted from the time series signals before being presented to a Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) classifier. The features were based on different kinematic quantities of spirals including radius, angle, speed and velocity with the aim of measuring the severity of involuntary symptoms and discriminate between PD-specific (bradykinesia) and/or treatment-induced symptoms (dyskinesia). A Principal Component Analysis was applied on the features to reduce their dimensions where 4 relevant principal components (PCs) were retained and used as inputs to the MLP classifier. Finally, the MLP classifier mapped these components to the corresponding visually assessed motor phenotype scores for automating the process of scoring the bradykinesia and dyskinesia in PD patients whilst they draw spirals using the touch screen device. For motor phenotype (bradykinesia vs. dyskinesia) classification, the stratified 10-fold cross validation technique was employed. Results: There were good agreements between the four raters when rating the individual kinematic features with intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.88 for ‘impairment’, 0.74 for ‘speed’, 0.70 for ‘irregularity’, and moderate agreements when rating ‘hesitation’ with an ICC of 0.49. When assessing the two main motor phenotype categories (bradykinesia or dyskinesia) in animated spirals the agreements between the four raters ranged from fair to moderate. There were good correlations between mean ratings of the four raters on individual kinematic features and computed scores. The MLP classifier classified the motor phenotype that is bradykinesia or dyskinesia with an accuracy of 85% in relation to visual classifications of the four movement disorder specialists. The test-retest reliability of the four PCs across the three spiral test trials was good with Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients of 0.80, 0.82, 0.54 and 0.49, respectively. These results indicate that the computed scores are stable and consistent over time. Significant differences were found between the two groups (patients and healthy elderly subjects) in all the PCs, except for the PC3. Conclusions: The proposed method automatically assessed the severity of unwanted symptoms and could reasonably well discriminate between PD-specific and/or treatment-induced motor symptoms, in relation to visual assessments of movement disorder specialists. The objective assessments could provide a time-effect summary score that could be useful for improving decision-making during symptom evaluation of individualized treatment when the goal is to maximize functional On time for patients while minimizing their Off episodes and troublesome dyskinesias.

Aplicação de técnicas de aprendizado de máquina no reconhecimento de classes estruturais de proteínas

Nowadays, classifying proteins in structural classes, which concerns the inference of patterns in their 3D conformation, is one of the most important open problems in Molecular Biology. The main reason for this is that the function of a protein is intrinsically related to its spatial conformation. However, such conformations are very difficult to be obtained experimentally in laboratory. Thus, this problem has drawn the attention of many researchers in Bioinformatics. Considering the great difference between the number of protein sequences already known and the number of three-dimensional structures determined experimentally, the demand of automated techniques for structural classification of proteins is very high. In this context, computational tools, especially Machine Learning (ML) techniques, have become essential to deal with this problem. In this work, ML techniques are used in the recognition of protein structural classes: Decision Trees, k-Nearest Neighbor, Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machine and Neural Networks. These methods have been chosen because they represent different paradigms of learning and have been widely used in the Bioinfornmatics literature. Aiming to obtain an improvment in the performance of these techniques (individual classifiers), homogeneous (Bagging and Boosting) and heterogeneous (Voting, Stacking and StackingC) multiclassification systems are used. Moreover, since the protein database used in this work presents the problem of imbalanced classes, artificial techniques for class balance (Undersampling Random, Tomek Links, CNN, NCL and OSS) are used to minimize such a problem. In order to evaluate the ML methods, a cross-validation procedure is applied, where the accuracy of the classifiers is measured using the mean of classification error rate, on independent test sets. These means are compared, two by two, by the hypothesis test aiming to evaluate if there is, statistically, a significant difference between them. With respect to the results obtained with the individual classifiers, Support Vector Machine presented the best accuracy. In terms of the multi-classification systems (homogeneous and heterogeneous), they showed, in general, a superior or similar performance when compared to the one achieved by the individual classifiers used - especially Boosting with Decision Tree and the StackingC with Linear Regression as meta classifier. The Voting method, despite of its simplicity, has shown to be adequate for solving the problem presented in this work. The techniques for class balance, on the other hand, have not produced a significant improvement in the global classification error. Nevertheless, the use of such techniques did improve the classification error for the minority class. In this context, the NCL technique has shown to be more appropriated

Uma Análise de métodos de distriubuição de atributos em comitês de classificadores

The objective of the researches in artificial intelligence is to qualify the computer to execute functions that are performed by humans using knowledge and reasoning. This work was developed in the area of machine learning, that it s the study branch of artificial intelligence, being related to the project and development of algorithms and techniques capable to allow the computational learning. The objective of this work is analyzing a feature selection method for ensemble systems. The proposed method is inserted into the filter approach of feature selection method, it s using the variance and Spearman correlation to rank the feature and using the reward and punishment strategies to measure the feature importance for the identification of the classes. For each ensemble, several different configuration were used, which varied from hybrid (homogeneous) to non-hybrid (heterogeneous) structures of ensemble. They were submitted to five combining methods (voting, sum, sum weight, multiLayer Perceptron and naïve Bayes) which were applied in six distinct database (real and artificial). The classifiers applied during the experiments were k- nearest neighbor, multiLayer Perceptron, naïve Bayes and decision tree. Finally, the performance of ensemble was analyzed comparatively, using none feature selection method, using a filter approach (original) feature selection method and the proposed method. To do this comparison, a statistical test was applied, which demonstrate that there was a significant improvement in the precision of the ensembles