A influência da espécie exótica invasora Artocarpus heterophyllus (jaqueira) sobre a comunidade de anuros de serrapilheira em uma área de Mata Atlântica no Sudeste do Brasil

O processo de introdução de espécies é reconhecido como a segunda causa mais importante de erosão da diversidade biológica em muitos ambientes no Brasil e no mundo. As espécies invasoras possuem não apenas o poder de sobrevivência e adaptação em outros ambientes, mas a capacidade de dominar a diversidade biológica nativa através da alteração das características básicas dos processos ecológicos naturais e das interações. A jaqueira, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamarck (Moraceae), tem sua origem nas florestas tropicais da Índia, tendo sido introduzida no Brasil ainda no período Colonial e atualmente é invasora em áreas de Mata Atlântica. Este estudo fornece os primeiros dados sobre a influência da espécie exótica invasora Artocarpus heterophyllus sobre comunidades de anuros de folhiço. As amostragens foram realizadas em uma área de Mata Atlântica, no litoral sudoeste do estado do Rio de Janeiro, incluindo informações sobre riqueza de espécies, densidades específicas e parâmetros ambientais. Nosso estudo foi realizado no Parque Estadual da Ilha Grande entre janeiro de 2009 e março de 2011. Para amostrar a comunidade de anuros de folhiço usamos 154 parcelas de 5 x 5 m, sendo 77 delas em áreas com jaqueiras e 77 em áreas sem jaqueiras, totalizando 3.850 m de chão de floresta amostrados. Nós amostramos um total de 613 anuros habitando o chão da floresta, pertencentes a dez espécies: Brachycephalus didactylus; Chiasmocleis sp.; Haddadus binotatus; Ischnocnema guentheri; Ischnocnema octavioi; Ischnocnema parva; Leptodactylus marmoratus; Physalaemus signifer; Rhinnela ornata e Zachaenus parvulus. Seis das dez espécies foram comuns às áreas com e sem jaqueiras, sendo a similaridade entre as duas áreas de 60%. As áreas com jaqueiras tiveram o dobro (N = 18) de parcelas sem nenhum anfíbio. O número de anfíbios registrados nas parcelas com jaqueiras (38%) foi menor do que o encontrado nas áreas sem jaqueiras (62%). O anfíbio predominante no folhiço em ambas às condições foi Ischnocnema parva, tendo abundancia maior nas parcelas sem jaqueiras. A densidade total de anuros vivendo no chão da floresta nas áreas com jaqueiras (12,2 ind/100 m) foi menor que nas áreas sem jaqueiras (19,7 ind/100 m). Entre os parâmetros ambientais analisados os que possuíram maior influência sobre a abundância de anfíbios foram a profundidade do folhiço e o pH do solo. Os dados sugerem que a jaqueira, além de ocupar o habitat de espécies nativas, é capaz de promover alterações na estrutura desses habitats que irão intervir na fauna do local.

Relação entre pluviosidade efetiva e estoque de matéria orgânica de superfície na ciclagem de nutrientes em floresta ombrófila urbana: Parque Nacional da Tijuca - RJ

O estoque de matéria orgânica de superfície refere-se a todo material orgânico decomposto ou em decomposição sobreposto ao solo mineral, bem como ao material orgânico misturado às partículas minerais do horizonte A. Este serve como indicador da funcionalidade e integridade de ecossistemas florestais quando o analisamos sob a perspectiva das "Formas de Húmus". Nesta perspectiva o material orgânico se presenta como disposto em camadas internas que variam no peso e espessura de acordo com a atuação dos agentes decompositores locais, e expressa a ciclagem de nutrientes que se dá a partir dos dois principais processos que sintetizam e/ou modulam o funcionamento dos ecossistemas, a produção e a decomposição da matéria orgânica. O modelo de formas de húmus segue uma classificação desenvolvida na Europa que não se aplica perfeitamente às áreas tropicais pela alta variabilidade de ambientes. Estima-se que fatores locais e particulares como características edáficas, estrutura e composição da vegetação, relevo e o microclima podem distorcer esta classificação e diferir significativamente do modelo global. Esta pesquisa buscou o refinamento deste modelo, buscando entender de que modo a pluviosidade efetiva (chuva que atravessa a copa das árvores e chega ao solo), como fenômeno de natureza microclimática, se relaciona com o estoque de matéria orgânica de superfície (sob a perspectiva das formas de húmus) em ambiente de floresta ombrófila montanhosa urbana.Para tal foram executadas análises físicas sobre o estoque de matéria orgânica de superfície, monitoramento da pluviosidade efetiva com pluviômetro experimentais adaptados para esta demanda e análises químicas sobre a água da chuva após lixiviação da matéria orgânica. Foi montada uma estrutura composta de quinze pluviômetros experimentais em uma encosta florestada no Parque Nacional da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro - RJ) e instalação de pluviômetros eletrônicos em ambientes de céu aberto em áreas adjacentes a esta encosta pertencentes à área do parque. Os resultados indicam que da chuva que cai na floresta, cerca de 15% é interceptada pelas copas e o restante, parte é interceptada pela matéria orgânica do solo. A camada MFB (ou H) é a que retém mais água, indicando que, florestas que a decomposição é rápida no processo de fragmentação e lenta na mineralização, terão mais água retida no estoque de matéria orgânica. As diferentes camadas vão nutrir o solo de maneira diferenciada quando este processo deriva da lixiviação, como o cálcio que é liberado em a maior quantidade pelas camadas mais fragmentadas como a F e a MFB, o potássio e magnésio têm maior disponibilização quando deriva da camada L, indicando que durante este processo estes nutrientes são mais consumidos do que liberados. Foi perceptível que o sódio é bastante abundante na chuva antes mesmo de atingir a matéria orgânica, confirmando estudos anteriores. A utilização deste sistema proposto de pluviômetros experimentais possibilitou entender como esta estratificação interna do estoque de matéria orgânica de superfície acumula água, pois os métodos tradicionais não se baseiam no modelo de formas de húmus, e possibilitou ainda, o a análise do processo de lixiviação e liberação de nutrientes para o solo.

Anatomia da madeira e dendrocronologia de espécies arbóreas do gênero Machaerium Pers. (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)

Machaerium é um dos maiores gêneros arbóreos tropicais de leguminosas, com cerca de 130 espécies com distribuição predominantemente neotropical e centro de diversidade no Brasil, onde ocorrem cerca de 80 espécies. O gênero ocorre em todos os domínios fitogeográficos do país, porém a Mata Atlântica e a Floresta Amazônica possuem os maiores índices de riqueza e endemismo. As espécies do gênero estão classificadas em cinco seções infragenéricas, que se baseiam principalmente na forma e venação dos folíolos e na presença de estípulas espinescentes. Entretanto, esta classificação tem sido questionada por alguns autores, principalmente quando comparada com análises filogenéticas. Dessa forma, surge a necessidade de buscar outros caracteres que auxiliem na delimitação das espécies e que permitam uma reavaliação na classificação nfragenéricas, além de conhecer o potencial para estudos dendrocronológicos das espécies em um bioma tão rico e ameaçado como a Mata Atlântica. O presente trabalho visou estudar a anatomia do lenho de onze espécies arbóreas de Machaerium a fim de verificar a consistência das seções infragenéricas, fornecer caracteres diagnósticos para a delimitação das espécies e caracterizar as pontoações intervasculares ornamentadas, para verificar seu potencial diagnóstico no gênero em questão. Além disso, analisar a periodicidade de crescimento e a influência dos fatores climáticos no crescimento de Machaerium incorruptibile, espécie endêmica da Mata Atlântica. As amostras foram coletadas através de método não destrutivo e processadas seguindo os métodos usuais para anatomia do lenho, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e dendrocronologia. As espécies apresentaram as características anatômicas descritas para a família Leguminosae e para a subfamília Papilionoideae. A presença de faixas de parênquima não lignificado, fibras de paredes delgadas e raios irregularmente estratificados foram importantes na separação de Machaerium hirtum das outras dez espécies. As dez espécies restantes foram separadas entre si pelos dados quantitativos do lenho, principalmente diâmetro e frequência de vasos, e também pelos caracteres morfológicos das pontoações ornamentadas, como a projeção ou não das ornamentações na abertura da pontoação. A anatomia da madeira não correspondeu as seções infragenéricas tradicionalmente tratadas para o gênero. Para a dendrocronologia os dados foram analisados com uso do software ARSTAN e foi construída uma cronologia para M. incorruptibile. As cronologias foram analisadas juntamente com os dados de precipitação e temperatura, onde observou-se uma correlação significativa com a temperatura. A largura dos anéis de crescimento foi correlacionada positivamente com a temperatura média da primavera, época em que a temperatura se encontra mais amena e, negativamente com a temperatura média do verão, onde as temperaturas são mais altas. Também houve correlação negativa entre os eventos mais severos de El Niño e a largura dos anéis de crescimento, demonstrando o efeito deste fenômeno no crescimento da população arbórea, como encontrado em outras espécies tropicais.

Métodos para superar a dormência de sementes florestais tropicais.

Informacoes tecnicas sobre metodos praticos e eficazes para superar a dormencia de sementes de especies florestais tropicais em Manaus, AM (Brasil), visando a producao de mudas uniformes e em quantidades suficientes para subsidiar programas de reflorestamento e recuperacao de areas degradadas.

Source Characterization of Sedimentary Organic Matter in a Tropical Estuary, Southwest Coast of India: A Biomarker Approach

The source, fate and diagentic pathway of sedimentary organic matter in estuaries are difficult to delineate due to the complexity of organic matter sources, intensive physical mixing and biological processes. A combination of bulk organic matter techniques and molecular biomarkers are found to be successful in explaining organic matter dynamics in estuaries. The basic requirement for these multi-proxy approaches are (i) sources have significantly differing characteristics, (ii) there are a sufficient number of tracers to delineate all sources and (iii) organic matter degradation and processing have little, similar or predictable effects on end member characteristics. Although there have been abundant researches that have attempted to tackle difficulties related to the source and fate of organic matter in estuarine systems, our understanding remains limited or rather inconsistent regarding the Indian estuaries. Cochin estuary is the largest among many extensive estuarine systems along the southwest coast of India. It supports as much biological productivity and diversity as tropical rain forests. In this study, we have used a combination of bulk geochemical parameters and different group of molecular biomarkers to define organic matter sources and thereby identifying various biogeochemical processes acting along the salinity gradient of the Cochin estuary

Spatial and temporal characteristics of rain intensity in the peninsular Malaysia using TRMM rain rate

The present study is focused on the intensity distribution of rainfall in different classes and their contribution to the total seasonal rainfall. In addition, we studied the spatial and diurnal variation of the rainfall in the study areas. For the present study, we retrieved data from TRMM (Tropical Rain Measuring Mission) rain rate available in every 3 h temporal and 25 km spatial resolutions. Moreover, station rainfall data is used to validate the TRMM rain rate and found significant correlation between them (linear correlation coefficients are 0.96, 0.85, 0.75 and 0.63 for the stations Kota Bharu, Senai, Cameron highlands and KLIA, respectively). We selected four areas in the Peninsular Malaysia and they are south coastal, east coastal, west coastal and highland regions. Diurnal variation of frequency of rain occurrence is different for different locations. We noticed bimodal variation in the coastal areas in most of the seasons and unimodal variation in the highland/inland area. During the southwest monsoon period in the west coastal stations, there is no distinct diurnal variation. The distribution of different intensity classes during different seasons are explained in detail in the results

A 45 kyr palaeoclimate record from the lowland interior of tropical South America

We present a well-dated, high-resolution, ~ 45 kyr lake sediment record reflecting regional temperature and precipitation change in the continental interior of the Southern Hemisphere (SH) tropics of South America. The study site is Laguna La Gaiba (LLG), a large lake (95 km2) hydrologically-linked to the Pantanal, an immense, seasonally-flooded basin and the world's largest tropical wetland (135,000 km2). Lake-level changes at LLG are therefore reflective of regional precipitation. We infer past fluctuations in precipitation at this site through changes in: i) pollen-inferred extent of flood-tolerant forest; ii) relative abundance of terra firme humid tropical forest versus seasonally-dry tropical forest pollen types; and iii) proportions of deep- versus shallow-water diatoms. A probabilistic model, based on plant family and genus climatic optima, was used to generate quantitative estimates of past temperature from the fossil pollen data. Our temperature reconstruction demonstrates rising temperature (by 4 °C) at 19.5 kyr BP, synchronous with the onset of deglacial warming in the central Andes, strengthening the evidence that climatic warming in the SH tropics preceded deglacial warming in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) by at least 5 kyr. We provide unequivocal evidence that the climate at LLG was markedly drier during the last glacial period (45.0–12.2 kyr BP) than during the Holocene, contrasting with SH tropical Andean and Atlantic records that demonstrate a strengthening of the South American summer monsoon during the global Last Glacial Maximum (~ 21 kyr BP), in tune with the ~ 20 kyr precession orbital cycle. Holocene climate conditions occurred as early as 12.8–12.2 kyr BP, when increased precipitation in the Pantanal catchment caused heightened flooding and rising lake levels in LLG. In contrast to this strong geographic variation in LGM precipitation across the continent, expansion of tropical dry forest between 10 and 3 kyr BP at LLG strengthens the body of evidence for widespread early–mid Holocene drought across tropical South America.

Pollen-based biome reconstructions for Latin America at 0, 6000 and 18000 radiocarbon years

The biomisation method is used to reconstruct Latin American vegetation at 6000±500 and 18 000±1000 radiocarbon years before present (14C yr BP) from pollen data. Tests using modern pollen data from 381 samples derived from 287 locations broadly reproduce potential natural vegetation. The strong temperature gradient associated with the Andes is recorded by a transition from high altitude cool grass/shrubland and cool mixed forest to mid-altitude cool temperate rain forest, to tropical dry, seasonal and rain forest at low altitudes. Reconstructed biomes from a number of sites do not match the potential vegetation due to local factors such as human impact, methodological artefacts and mechanisms of pollen representivity of the parent vegetation.

Pollen-based reconstructions of biome distributions for Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (SEAPAC region) at 0,6000 and 18,000 14C yr B.P.

Aim  This paper documents reconstructions of the vegetation patterns in Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (SEAPAC region) in the mid-Holocene and at the last glacial maximum (LGM). Methods  Vegetation patterns were reconstructed from pollen data using an objective biomization scheme based on plant functional types. The biomization scheme was first tested using 535 modern pollen samples from 377 sites, and then applied unchanged to fossil pollen samples dating to 6000 ± 500 or 18,000 ± 1000 14C yr bp. Results  1. Tests using surface pollen sample sites showed that the biomization scheme is capable of reproducing the modern broad-scale patterns of vegetation distribution. The north–south gradient in temperature, reflected in transitions from cool evergreen needleleaf forest in the extreme south through temperate rain forest or wet sclerophyll forest (WSFW) and into tropical forests, is well reconstructed. The transitions from xerophytic through sclerophyll woodlands and open forests to closed-canopy forests, which reflect the gradient in plant available moisture from the continental interior towards the coast, are reconstructed with less geographical precision but nevertheless the broad-scale pattern emerges. 2. Differences between the modern and mid-Holocene vegetation patterns in mainland Australia are comparatively small and reflect changes in moisture availability rather than temperature. In south-eastern Australia some sites show a shift towards more moisture-stressed vegetation in the mid-Holocene with xerophytic woods/scrub and temperate sclerophyll woodland and shrubland at sites characterized today by WSFW or warm-temperate rain forest (WTRF). However, sites in the Snowy Mountains, on the Southern Tablelands and east of the Great Dividing Range have more moisture-demanding vegetation in the mid-Holocene than today. South-western Australia was slightly drier than today. The single site in north-western Australia also shows conditions drier than today in the mid-Holocene. Changes in the tropics are also comparatively small, but the presence of WTRF and tropical deciduous broadleaf forest and woodland in the mid-Holocene, in sites occupied today by cool-temperate rain forest, indicate warmer conditions. 3. Expansion of xerophytic vegetation in the south and tropical deciduous broadleaf forest and woodland in the north indicate drier conditions across mainland Australia at the LGM. None of these changes are informative about the degree of cooling. However the evidence from the tropics, showing lowering of the treeline and forest belts, indicates that conditions were between 1 and 9 °C (depending on elevation) colder. The encroachment of tropical deciduous broadleaf forest and woodland into lowland evergreen broadleaf forest implies greater aridity. Main conclusions  This study provides the first continental-scale reconstruction of mid-Holocene and LGM vegetation patterns from Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (SEAPAC region) using an objective biomization scheme. These data will provide a benchmark for evaluation of palaeoclimate simulations within the framework of the Palaeoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project.

The land-atmosphere water flux in the tropics

Tropical vegetation is a major source of global land surface evapotranspiration, and can thus play a major role in global hydrological cycles and global atmospheric circulation. Accurate prediction of tropical evapotranspiration is critical to our understanding of these processes under changing climate. We examined the controls on evapotranspiration in tropical vegetation at 21 pan-tropical eddy covariance sites, conducted a comprehensive and systematic evaluation of 13 evapotranspiration models at these sites, and assessed the ability to scale up model estimates of evapotranspiration for the test region of Amazonia. Net radiation was the strongest determinant of evapotranspiration (mean evaporative fraction was 0.72) and explained 87% of the variance in monthly evapotranspiration across the sites. Vapor pressure deficit was the strongest residual predictor (14%), followed by normalized difference vegetation index (9%), precipitation (6%) and wind speed (4%). The radiation-based evapotranspiration models performed best overall for three reasons: (1) the vegetation was largely decoupled from atmospheric turbulent transfer (calculated from X decoupling factor), especially at the wetter sites; (2) the resistance-based models were hindered by difficulty in consistently characterizing canopy (and stomatal) resistance in the highly diverse vegetation; (3) the temperature-based models inadequately captured the variability in tropical evapotranspiration. We evaluated the potential to predict regional evapotranspiration for one test region: Amazonia. We estimated an Amazonia-wide evapotranspiration of 1370 mm yr(-1), but this value is dependent on assumptions about energy balance closure for the tropical eddy covariance sites; a lower value (1096 mm yr(-1)) is considered in discussion on the use of flux data to validate and interpolate models.

Reproductive biology of six Brazilian Myrtaceae: is there a syndrome associated with buzz-pollination?

The floral phenology and reproductive biology of six sympatric arboreal Myrtaceae species were studied in the coastal plain forest (Ubatuba, Brazil, 44 degrees 48`W 23 degrees 22`S), from September 1999 to April 2002. Flowering started in the transition from the driest to the most humid season (Sep/Oct) and lasted until March. The sequence with which the species flowered each year was consistently the same. However, the timing of flowering onset, peak, end, and overlap differed from one year to another. Myrtaceae species were classified as xenogamic according to the pollen:ovule ratios, but two of them seem to present some degree of self-compatibility. Flowers of all species opened at sunrise and lasted for I day. Bombus morio (Apidae: Bombini) was the most common visitor followed by Melipona rufiventris (Apidae: Meliponini). Buzz pollination in Myrtaceae was common at the study area and seems to be related to bees` behaviour and to some aspects of flowers` morphology.

Are tortoises important seed dispersers in Amazonian forests?

According to most studies on seed dispersal in tropical forests, mammals and birds are considered the main dispersal agents and the role played by other animal groups remains poorly explored. We investigate qualitative and quantitative components of the role played by the tortoise Chelonoidis denticulata in seed dispersal in southeastern Amazon, and the influence of seasonal variation in tortoise movement patterns on resulting seed shadows. Seed shadows produced by this tortoise were estimated by combining information on seed passage times through their digestive tract, which varied from 3 to 17 days, with a robust dataset on movements obtained from 18 adult C. denticulata monitored with radio transmitters and spoon-and-line tracking devices. A total of 4,206 seeds were found in 94 collected feces, belonging to 50 seed morphotypes of, at least, 25 plant genera. Very low rates of damage to the external structure of the ingested seeds were observed. Additionally, results of germination trials suggested that passage of seeds through C. denticulata`s digestive tract does not seem to negatively affect seed germination. The estimated seed shadows are likely to contribute significantly to the dispersal of seeds away from parent plants. During the dry season seeds were dispersed, on average, 174.1 m away from the location of fruit ingestion; during the rainy season, this mean dispersal distance increased to 276.7 m. Our results suggest that C. denticulata plays an important role in seed dispersal in Amazonian forests and highlight the influence of seasonal changes in movements on the resulting seed shadows.

Forest structure in a mosaic of rainforest sites: The effect of fragmentation and recovery after clear cut

A variety of human-induced disturbances such as forest fragmentation and recovery after deforestation for pasture or agricultural activities have resulted in a complex landscape mosaic in the Una region of northeastern Brazil. Using a set of vegetation descriptors, we investigated the main structural changes observed in forest categories that comprise the major components of the regional landscape and searched for potential key descriptors that could be used to discriminate among different forest categories. We assessed the forest structure of five habitat categories defined as (I) interiors and (2) edges of large fragments of old-growth forest (>1000 ha), (3) interiors and (4) edges of small forest fragments (<100 ha), and (5) early secondary forests. Forest descriptors used here were: frequency of herbaceous lianas and woody climbers, number of standing dead trees, number of fallen trunks, litter depth, number of pioneer plants (early secondary and shade-intolerant species), vertical foliage stratification profile and distribution Of trees in different diameter classes. Edges and interiors of forest fragments were significantly different only in the number of standing dead trees. Secondary forests and edges of fragments showed differences in litter depth, fallen trunks and number of pioneer trees, and secondary forests were significantly different from fragment interiors in the number of standing dead trees and the number of pioneer trees. Horizontal and vertical structure evaluated via ordination analysis showed that fragment interiors, compared to secondary forests, were characterized by a greater number of medium (25-35 cm) and large (35-50 cm) trees and smaller numbers of thin trees (5-10 cm). There was great heterogeneity at the edges of small and large fragments, as these sites were distributed along almost the entire gradient. Most interiors of large and small fragments presented higher values of foliage densities at higher strata ( 15-20 m and at 20-25 m height), and lower densities at 1-5 m. All secondary forests and some fragment edge sites showed an opposite tendency. A discriminant function highlighted differences among forest categories, with transects of large fragment interiors and secondary forests representing two extremes along a disturbance gradient determined by foliage structure (densities at 15-20 m and 20-25 m), with the edges of both large and small fragments and the interiors of small fragments scattered across the gradient. The major underlying processes determining patterns of forest disturbance in the study region are discussed, highlighting the importance of forest fragments, independently of its size, as forests recovery after clear cut show a greatly distinct structure, with profound implications on fauna movements. (C) 2009 Elsevier BY. All rights reserved.

Relief influence on tree species richness in secondary forest fragments of Atlantic Forest, SE, Brazil

(Relief influence on tree species richness in secondary forest fragments of Atlantic Forest, SE, Brazil). The aim of this work was to explore the relationship between tree species richness and morphological characteristics of relief at the Ibiuna Plateau (SE Brazil). We sampled 61 plots of 0.30 ha, systematically established in 20 fragments of secondary forest (2-274 ha) and in three areas within a continuous secondary forest site, Morro Grande Reserve (9,400 ha). At each plot, 100 trees with diameter at breast height > 5 cm were sampled by the point centered quarter method, and total richness and richness per dispersal and succession class were obtained. The relief was characterized by the mean and variance of slope, elevation, aspect and slope location. There was no significant relationship between relief heterogeneity and tree species richness. Relief parameters generally did not affect tree richness, but elevation was particularly important especially in the continuous forest. Despite the limited range of altitudinal variation (150 m), species richness increases with elevation. The highest areas were also those with the largest forest cover and the lowest disturbance degree, which should contribute to the greater richness of those sites. Our results suggest an indirect influence of relief, due to the fact that deforestation is less intense in higher regions, rather than a direct influence of abiotic factors related to the altitudinal gradient.