Biaxial seismic behaviour of reinforced concrete columns

A análise dos efeitos dos sismos mostra que a investigação em engenharia sísmica deve dar especial atenção à avaliação da vulnerabilidade das construções existentes, frequentemente desprovidas de adequada resistência sísmica tal como acontece em edifícios de betão armado (BA) de muitas cidades em países do sul da Europa, entre os quais Portugal. Sendo os pilares elementos estruturais fundamentais na resistência sísmica dos edifícios, deve ser dada especial atenção à sua resposta sob ações cíclicas. Acresce que o sismo é um tipo de ação cujos efeitos nos edifícios exige a consideração de duas componentes horizontais, o que tem exigências mais severas nos pilares comparativamente à ação unidirecional. Assim, esta tese centra-se na avaliação da resposta estrutural de pilares de betão armado sujeitos a ações cíclicas horizontais biaxiais, em três linhas principais. Em primeiro lugar desenvolveu-se uma campanha de ensaios para o estudo do comportamento cíclico uniaxial e biaxial de pilares de betão armado com esforço axial constante. Para tal foram construídas quatro séries de pilares retangulares de betão armado (24 no total) com diferentes características geométricas e quantidades de armadura longitudinal, tendo os pilares sido ensaiados para diferentes histórias de carga. Os resultados experimentais obtidos são analisados e discutidos dando particular atenção à evolução do dano, à degradação de rigidez e resistência com o aumento das exigências de deformação, à energia dissipada, ao amortecimento viscoso equivalente; por fim é proposto um índice de dano para pilares solicitados biaxialmente. De seguida foram aplicadas diferentes estratégias de modelação não-linear para a representação do comportamento biaxial dos pilares ensaiados, considerando não-linearidade distribuída ao longo dos elementos ou concentrada nas extremidades dos mesmos. Os resultados obtidos com as várias estratégias de modelação demonstraram representar adequadamente a resposta em termos das curvas envolventes força-deslocamento, mas foram encontradas algumas dificuldades na representação da degradação de resistência e na evolução da energia dissipada. Por fim, é proposto um modelo global para a representação do comportamento não-linear em flexão de elementos de betão armado sujeitos a ações biaxiais cíclicas. Este modelo tem por base um modelo uniaxial conhecido, combinado com uma função de interação desenvolvida com base no modelo de Bouc- Wen. Esta função de interação foi calibrada com recurso a técnicas de otimização e usando resultados de uma série de análises numéricas com um modelo refinado. É ainda demonstrada a capacidade do modelo simplificado em reproduzir os resultados experimentais de ensaios biaxiais de pilares.

Seismic vulnerability and risk assessment of historic masonry buildings

Seismic risk evaluation of built-up areas involves analysis of the level of earthquake hazard of the region, building vulnerability and exposure. Within this approach that defines seismic risk, building vulnerability assessment assumes great importance, not only because of the obvious physical consequences in the eventual occurrence of a seismic event, but also because it is the one of the few potential aspects in which engineering research can intervene. In fact, rigorous vulnerability assessment of existing buildings and the implementation of appropriate retrofitting solutions can help to reduce the levels of physical damage, loss of life and the economic impact of future seismic events. Vulnerability studies of urban centresshould be developed with the aim of identifying building fragilities and reducing seismic risk. As part of the rehabilitation of the historic city centre of Coimbra, a complete identification and inspection survey of old masonry buildings has been carried out. The main purpose of this research is to discuss vulnerability assessment methodologies, particularly those of the first level, through the proposal and development of a method previously used to determine the level of vulnerability, in the assessment of physical damage and its relationship with seismic intensity.

Development of open models and tools for seismic risk assessment: application to Portugal

The exponential growth of the world population has led to an increase of settlements often located in areas prone to natural disasters, including earthquakes. Consequently, despite the important advances in the field of natural catastrophes modelling and risk mitigation actions, the overall human losses have continued to increase and unprecedented economic losses have been registered. In the research work presented herein, various areas of earthquake engineering and seismology are thoroughly investigated, and a case study application for mainland Portugal is performed. Seismic risk assessment is a critical link in the reduction of casualties and damages due to earthquakes. Recognition of this relation has led to a rapid rise in demand for accurate, reliable and flexible numerical tools and software. In the present work, an open-source platform for seismic hazard and risk assessment is developed. This software is capable of computing the distribution of losses or damage for an earthquake scenario (deterministic event-based) or earthquake losses due to all the possible seismic events that might occur within a region for a given interval of time (probabilistic event-based). This effort has been developed following an open and transparent philosophy and therefore, it is available to any individual or institution. The estimation of the seismic risk depends mainly on three components: seismic hazard, exposure and vulnerability. The latter component assumes special importance, as by intervening with appropriate retrofitting solutions, it may be possible to decrease directly the seismic risk. The employment of analytical methodologies is fundamental in the assessment of structural vulnerability, particularly in regions where post-earthquake building damage might not be available. Several common methodologies are investigated, and conclusions are yielded regarding the method that can provide an optimal balance between accuracy and computational effort. In addition, a simplified approach based on the displacement-based earthquake loss assessment (DBELA) is proposed, which allows for the rapid estimation of fragility curves, considering a wide spectrum of uncertainties. A novel vulnerability model for the reinforced concrete building stock in Portugal is proposed in this work, using statistical information collected from hundreds of real buildings. An analytical approach based on nonlinear time history analysis is adopted and the impact of a set of key parameters investigated, including the damage state criteria and the chosen intensity measure type. A comprehensive review of previous studies that contributed to the understanding of the seismic hazard and risk for Portugal is presented. An existing seismic source model was employed with recently proposed attenuation models to calculate probabilistic seismic hazard throughout the territory. The latter results are combined with information from the 2011 Building Census and the aforementioned vulnerability model to estimate economic loss maps for a return period of 475 years. These losses are disaggregated across the different building typologies and conclusions are yielded regarding the type of construction more vulnerable to seismic activity.

Seismic retrofitting of RC buildings using CFRP and post-tensioned metal straps: shake table tests

This article examines the effectiveness of two innovative retrofitting solutions at enhancing the seismic behaviour of a substandard reinforced concrete building tested on a shake table as part of the Pan-European funded project BANDIT. To simulate typical substandard construction, the reinforcement of columns and beam-column joints of the full-scale structure had inadequate detailing. An initial series of shake table tests were carried out to assess the seismic behaviour of the bare building and the effectiveness of a first retrofitting intervention using Post-Tensioned Metal Straps. After these tests, columns and joints were repaired and subsequently retrofitted using a retrofitting solution consisting of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers and Post-Tensioned Metal Straps applied on opposite frames of the building. The building was then subjected to unidirectional and three-dimensional incremental seismic excitations to assess the effectiveness of the two retrofitting solutions at improving the global and local building performance. The article provides details of the above shake table testing programme and retrofitting solutions, and discusses the test results in terms of the observed damage, global damage indexes, performance levels and local strains. It is shown that whilst the original bare building was significantly damaged at a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.15g, the retrofitted building resisted severe threedimensional shake table tests up to PGA=0.60g without failure. Moreover, the retrofitting intervention enhanced the interstorey drift ratio capacity of the 1st and 2nd floors by 160% and 110%, respectively. Therefore, the proposed dual retrofitting system is proven to be very effective for improving the seismic performance of substandard buildings.

Analysis and visualization of seismic data using mutual information

Seismic data is difficult to analyze and classical mathematical tools reveal strong limitations in exposing hidden relationships between earthquakes. In this paper, we study earthquake phenomena in the perspective of complex systems. Global seismic data, covering the period from 1962 up to 2011 is analyzed. The events, characterized by their magnitude, geographic location and time of occurrence, are divided into groups, either according to the Flinn-Engdahl (F-E) seismic regions of Earth or using a rectangular grid based in latitude and longitude coordinates. Two methods of analysis are considered and compared in this study. In a first method, the distributions of magnitudes are approximated by Gutenberg-Richter (G-R) distributions and the parameters used to reveal the relationships among regions. In the second method, the mutual information is calculated and adopted as a measure of similarity between regions. In both cases, using clustering analysis, visualization maps are generated, providing an intuitive and useful representation of the complex relationships that are present among seismic data. Such relationships might not be perceived on classical geographic maps. Therefore, the generated charts are a valid alternative to other visualization tools, for understanding the global behavior of earthquakes.

Multiresolution spherical wavelet analysis in global seismic tomography

Every seismic event produces seismic waves which travel throughout the Earth. Seismology is the science of interpreting measurements to derive information about the structure of the Earth. Seismic tomography is the most powerful tool for determination of 3D structure of deep Earth's interiors. Tomographic models obtained at the global and regional scales are an underlying tool for determination of geodynamical state of the Earth, showing evident correlation with other geophysical and geological characteristics. The global tomographic images of the Earth can be written as a linear combinations of basis functions from a specifically chosen set, defining the model parameterization. A number of different parameterizations are commonly seen in literature: seismic velocities in the Earth have been expressed, for example, as combinations of spherical harmonics or by means of the simpler characteristic functions of discrete cells. With this work we are interested to focus our attention on this aspect, evaluating a new type of parameterization, performed by means of wavelet functions. It is known from the classical Fourier theory that a signal can be expressed as the sum of a, possibly infinite, series of sines and cosines. This sum is often referred as a Fourier expansion. The big disadvantage of a Fourier expansion is that it has only frequency resolution and no time resolution. The Wavelet Analysis (or Wavelet Transform) is probably the most recent solution to overcome the shortcomings of Fourier analysis. The fundamental idea behind this innovative analysis is to study signal according to scale. Wavelets, in fact, are mathematical functions that cut up data into different frequency components, and then study each component with resolution matched to its scale, so they are especially useful in the analysis of non stationary process that contains multi-scale features, discontinuities and sharp strike. Wavelets are essentially used in two ways when they are applied in geophysical process or signals studies: 1) as a basis for representation or characterization of process; 2) as an integration kernel for analysis to extract information about the process. These two types of applications of wavelets in geophysical field, are object of study of this work. At the beginning we use the wavelets as basis to represent and resolve the Tomographic Inverse Problem. After a briefly introduction to seismic tomography theory, we assess the power of wavelet analysis in the representation of two different type of synthetic models; then we apply it to real data, obtaining surface wave phase velocity maps and evaluating its abilities by means of comparison with an other type of parametrization (i.e., block parametrization). For the second type of wavelet application we analyze the ability of Continuous Wavelet Transform in the spectral analysis, starting again with some synthetic tests to evaluate its sensibility and capability and then apply the same analysis to real data to obtain Local Correlation Maps between different model at same depth or between different profiles of the same model.

Structure-soil-structure interaction effects on the dynamic response of piled structures under obliquely-incident seismic shear waves.

[EN] This work studies the structure-soil-structure interaction (SSSI) effects on the dynamic response of nearby piled structures under obliquely-incident shear waves. For this purpose, a three-dimensional, frequency-domain, coupled boundary element-finite (BEM-FEM) model is used to analyse the response of configuration of three buildings aligned parallel to the horizontal component of the wave propagation direction.

Velocity structure and seismic anisotropy in the crust and upper mantle from Receiver Function analysis: three case studies in Italy

The research for this PhD project consisted in the application of the RFs analysis technique to different data-sets of teleseismic events recorded at temporary and permanent stations located in three distinct study regions: Colli Albani area, Northern Apennines and Southern Apennines. We found some velocity models to interpret the structures in these regions, which possess very different geologic and tectonics characteristics and therefore offer interesting case study to face. In the Colli Albani some of the features evidenced in the RFs are shared by all the analyzed stations: the Moho is almost flat and is located at about 23 km depth, and the presence of a relatively shallow limestone layer is a stable feature; contrariwise there are features which vary from station to station, indicating local complexities. Three seismic stations, close to the central part of the former volcanic edifice, display relevant anisotropic signatures­­­ with symmetry axes consistent with the emplacement of the magmatic chamber. Two further anisotropic layers are present at greater depth, in the lower crust and the upper mantle, respectively, with symmetry axes directions related to the evolution of the volcano complex. In Northern Apennines we defined the isotropic structure of the area, finding the depth of the Tyrrhenian (almost 25 km and flat) and Adriatic (40 km and dipping underneath the Apennines crests) Mohos. We determined a zone in which the two Mohos overlap, and identified an anisotropic body in between, involved in the subduction and going down with the Adiratic Moho. We interpreted the downgoing anisotropic layer as generated by post-subduction delamination of the top-slab layer, probably made of metamorphosed crustal rocks caught in the subduction channel and buoyantly rising toward the surface. In the Southern Apennines, we found the Moho depth for 16 seismic stations, and highlighted the presence of an anisotropic layer underneath each station, at about 15-20 km below the whole study area. The moho displays a dome-like geometry, as it is shallow (29 km) in the central part of the study area, whereas it deepens peripherally (down to 45 km); the symmetry axes of anisotropic layer, interpreted as a layer separating the upper and the lower crust, show a moho-related pattern, indicated by the foliation of the layer which is parallel to the Moho trend. Moreover, due to the exceptional seismic event occurred on April 6th next to L’Aquila town, we determined the Vs model for two station located next to the epicenter. An extremely high velocity body is found underneath AQU station at 4-10 km depth, reaching Vs of about 4 km/s, while this body is lacking underneath FAGN station. We compared the presence of this body with other recent works and found an anti-correlation between the high Vs body, the max slip patches and earthquakes distribution. The nature of this body is speculative since such high velocities are consistent with deep crust or upper mantle, but can be interpreted as a as high strength barrier of which the high Vs is a typical connotation.

Analysis of eruptive and seismic sequences to improve the short-and long-term eruption forecasting

Forecasting the time, location, nature, and scale of volcanic eruptions is one of the most urgent aspects of modern applied volcanology. The reliability of probabilistic forecasting procedures is strongly related to the reliability of the input information provided, implying objective criteria for interpreting the historical and monitoring data. For this reason both, detailed analysis of past data and more basic research into the processes of volcanism, are fundamental tasks of a continuous information-gain process; in this way the precursor events of eruptions can be better interpreted in terms of their physical meanings with correlated uncertainties. This should lead to better predictions of the nature of eruptive events. In this work we have studied different problems associated with the long- and short-term eruption forecasting assessment. First, we discuss different approaches for the analysis of the eruptive history of a volcano, most of them generally applied for long-term eruption forecasting purposes; furthermore, we present a model based on the characteristics of a Brownian passage-time process to describe recurrent eruptive activity, and apply it for long-term, time-dependent, eruption forecasting (Chapter 1). Conversely, in an effort to define further monitoring parameters as input data for short-term eruption forecasting in probabilistic models (as for example, the Bayesian Event Tree for eruption forecasting -BET_EF-), we analyze some characteristics of typical seismic activity recorded in active volcanoes; in particular, we use some methodologies that may be applied to analyze long-period (LP) events (Chapter 2) and volcano-tectonic (VT) seismic swarms (Chapter 3); our analysis in general are oriented toward the tracking of phenomena that can provide information about magmatic processes. Finally, we discuss some possible ways to integrate the results presented in Chapters 1 (for long-term EF), 2 and 3 (for short-term EF) in the BET_EF model (Chapter 4).

Seismic mitigation of existing masonry structures by means of added damping and stiffness

In this work seismic upgrading of existing masonry structures by means of hysteretic ADAS dampers is treated. ADAS are installed on external concrete walls, which are built parallel to the building, and then linked to the building's slab by means of steel rod connection system. In order to assess the effectiveness of the intervention, a parametric study considering variation of damper main features has been conducted. To this aim, the concepts of equivalent linear system (ELS) or equivalent viscous damping are deepen. Simplified equivalent linear model results are then checked respect results of the yielding structures. Two alternative displacement based methods for damper design are herein proposed. Both methods have been validated through non linear time history analyses with spectrum compatible accelerograms. Finally ADAS arrangement for the non conventional implementation is proposed.

Seismic sequences analysis for estimation of earthquake source parameters: corner frequency, stress drop, and seismic moment observations

The present study has been carried out with the following objectives: i) To investigate the attributes of source parameters of local and regional earthquakes; ii) To estimate, as accurately as possible, M0, fc, Δσ and their standard errors to infer their relationship with source size; iii) To quantify high-frequency earthquake ground motion and to study the source scaling. This work is based on observational data of micro, small and moderate -earthquakes for three selected seismic sequences, namely Parkfield (CA, USA), Maule (Chile) and Ferrara (Italy). For the Parkfield seismic sequence (CA), a data set of 757 (42 clusters) repeating micro-earthquakes (0 ≤ MW ≤ 2), collected using borehole High Resolution Seismic Network (HRSN), have been analyzed and interpreted. We used the coda methodology to compute spectral ratios to obtain accurate values of fc , Δσ, and M0 for three target clusters (San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Hawaii) of our data. We also performed a general regression on peak ground velocities to obtain reliable seismic spectra of all earthquakes. For the Maule seismic sequence, a data set of 172 aftershocks of the 2010 MW 8.8 earthquake (3.7 ≤ MW ≤ 6.2), recorded by more than 100 temporary broadband stations, have been analyzed and interpreted to quantify high-frequency earthquake ground motion in this subduction zone. We completely calibrated the excitation and attenuation of the ground motion in Central Chile. For the Ferrara sequence, we calculated moment tensor solutions for 20 events from MW 5.63 (the largest main event occurred on May 20 2012), down to MW 3.2 by a 1-D velocity model for the crust beneath the Pianura Padana, using all the geophysical and geological information available for the area. The PADANIA model allowed a numerical study on the characteristics of the ground motion in the thick sediments of the flood plain.

Earthquake forecasting and seismic hazard analysis: some insights on the testing phase and the modeling

This thesis is divided in three chapters. In the first chapter we analyse the results of the world forecasting experiment run by the Collaboratory for the Study of Earthquake Predictability (CSEP). We take the opportunity of this experiment to contribute to the definition of a more robust and reliable statistical procedure to evaluate earthquake forecasting models. We first present the models and the target earthquakes to be forecast. Then we explain the consistency and comparison tests that are used in CSEP experiments to evaluate the performance of the models. Introducing a methodology to create ensemble forecasting models, we show that models, when properly combined, are almost always better performing that any single model. In the second chapter we discuss in depth one of the basic features of PSHA: the declustering of the seismicity rates. We first introduce the Cornell-McGuire method for PSHA and we present the different motivations that stand behind the need of declustering seismic catalogs. Using a theorem of the modern probability (Le Cam's theorem) we show that the declustering is not necessary to obtain a Poissonian behaviour of the exceedances that is usually considered fundamental to transform exceedance rates in exceedance probabilities in the PSHA framework. We present a method to correct PSHA for declustering, building a more realistic PSHA. In the last chapter we explore the methods that are commonly used to take into account the epistemic uncertainty in PSHA. The most widely used method is the logic tree that stands at the basis of the most advanced seismic hazard maps. We illustrate the probabilistic structure of the logic tree, and then we show that this structure is not adequate to describe the epistemic uncertainty. We then propose a new probabilistic framework based on the ensemble modelling that properly accounts for epistemic uncertainties in PSHA.

TUNING, AVO, AND FLAT-SPOT EFFECTS IN A SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF NORTH SEA BLOCK F3

Reflection seismic data from the F3 block in the Dutch North Sea exhibits many large-amplitude reflections at shallow horizons, typically categorized as “brightspots ” (Schroot and Schuttenhelm, 2003), mainly because of their bright appearance. In most cases, these bright reflections show a significant “flatness” contrasting with local structural trends. While flatspots are often easily identified in thick reservoirs, we have often occasionally observed apparent flatspot tuning effects at fluid contacts near reservoir edges and in thin reservoir beds, while only poorly understanding them. We conclude that many of the shallow large-amplitude reflections in block F3 are dominated by flatspots, and we investigate the thin-bed tuning effects that such flatspots cause as they interact with the reflection from the reservoir’s upper boundary. There are two possible effects to be considered: (1) the “wedge-model” tuning effects of the flatspot and overlying brightspots, dimspots, or polarity-reversals; and (2) the stacking effects that result from possible inclusion of post-critical flatspot reflections in these shallow sands. We modeled the effects of these two phenomena for the particular stratigraphic sequence in block F3. Our results suggest that stacking of post-critical flatspot reflections can cause similar large-amplitude but flat reflections, in some cases even causing an interface expected to produce a ‘dimspot’ to appear as a ‘brightspot’. Analysis of NMO stretch and muting shows the likely exclusion of critical offset data in stacked output. If post-critical reflections are included in stacking, unusual results will be observed. In the North Sea case, we conclude the tuning effect was the primary reason causing for the brightness and flatness of these reflections. However, it is still important to note that care should be taken while applying muting on reflections with wide range of incidence angles and the inclusion of critical offset data may cause some spurious features in the stacked section.

Seismic modelling and ava analysis of hidrocarbon traps

In this study, forward seismic modelling of four geological models with Hydrocarbon (HC) traps were performed by ray tracing method to produce synthetic seismogram of each model. The idea is to identify the Hydrocarbon Indicators (HCI‟s) such as bright spot, flat spot, dim spot and Bottom Simulating Reflector (BSR) in the synthethic seismogram. The modelling was performed in DISCO/FOCUS 5.0 seismic data processing programme. Strong positive and negative reflection amplitudes and some artifact reflection horizons were observed on produced seismograms due to rapid changes in subsurface velocity and geometry respectively Additionally, Amplitude-versus-angle (AVA) curves of each HCIs was calculated by the Crewes Zoeppritz Explorer programme. AVA curves show that how the reflection coefficients change with the density and the P and S wave velocities of each layer such as oil, gas, gas hydrate or water saturated sediments. Due to AVA curves, an increase in reflection amplitude with incident angle of seismic waves corresponds to an indicator of a hydrocarbon reservoir