The European Resonance of Napoleon’s Defeat in Spain

The military event that sealed the defeat of Napoleon in Spain was the Battle of Vitoria on 21st June 1813, which saw the allied British, Spanish and Portuguese troops led by Wellington gain victory over Joseph Bonaparte's forces. It was the last great battle of what is known in Spain as the Guerra de la Independencia, in the United Kingdom as the Peninsular War and in France as the Guerre d'Espagne. While a sliver of Spanish territory remained under French control and the war itself went on for a few more months, it was the Battle of Vitoria that marked the end of Napoleon's rule on the Iberian Peninsula, as symbolised by the departure from Spain of Joseph Bonaparte, the monarch who had been imposed five years earlier to remove the Bourbons from the Spanish throne.

Age determination of sediment core HZM, lake Holzmar (Tables 1, 2)

AMS radiocarbon ages have been determined on terrestrial macrofossils selected from the annually laminated sediments of lake Holzmaar (Germany). The radiocarbon chronology of this lake covers the last 12.6 ka. Comparison of the radiocarbon dated varve chronology with tree ring data shows that an additional 878 years have to be added to the varve chronology. The corrected 14C varve chronology of Holzmaar reaches back to ca. 13.8 ka cal. BP and compares favourably with the results from Soppensee (Switzerland) (Hajdas et al., 1993, doi:10.1007/BF00209748). The corrected ages for the onset and the end of the Younger Dryas biozone are 11,940 cal. BP and 11,490 cal. BP, respectively. The ash layer of the Laacher See volcanic eruption is dated at 12,201 ± 224 cal. BP and the Ulmener Tephra layer is dated at 10,904 cal. BP.

The victory of the Marne; the enemy's onslaught--order to stand firm--the battle--immediate results--historic consequences, /

Mode of access: Internet.

Actenstücke und Materialien zu der Geschichte des grossen Kampfes um die Freyheit Europa's in den Jahren 1812 und 1813.

Binder's title: Europas Freyheit.

Gettysburg, a history of the Gettysburg battle-field memorial association, with an account of the battle

A later edition, abridged, was published under title: Gettysburg; where and how the regiments fought.

A history of the peninsular war /

Reprint of the 1902-1930 ed. published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford.