Investigation des circuits neuronaux de la lecture à l’aide de la spectroscopie près du spectre de l’infrarouge

Pour la plupart des gens, la lecture est une activité automatique, inhérente à leur vie quotidienne et ne demandant que peu d’effort. Chez les individus souffrant d’épilepsie réflexe à la lecture, le simple fait de lire déclenche des crises épileptiques et les personnes doivent alors renoncer à la lecture. Les facteurs responsables du déclenchement de l’activité épileptique dans l’épilepsie réflexe à la lecture demeurent encore mal définis. Certains auteurs suggèrent que le nombre ainsi que la localisation des pointes épileptiques seraient en lien avec la voie de lecture impliquée. Des études en imagerie cérébrale, menées auprès de populations sans trouble neurologique, ont dévoilé que la lecture active un réseau étendu incluant les cortex frontaux, temporo-pariétaux et occipito-temporaux bilatéralement avec des différences dans les patrons d’activation pour les voies de lecture lexicale et phonologique. La majorité des études ont eu recours à des tâches de lecture silencieuse qui ne permettent pas d'évaluer la performance des participants. Dans la première étude de cette thèse, qui porte sur une étude de cas d'un patient avec épilepsie réflexe à la lecture, nous avons déterminé les tâches langagières et les caractéristiques des stimuli qui influencent l'activité épileptique. Les résultats ont confirmé que la lecture était la principale tâche responsable du déclenchement de l’activité épileptique chez ce patient. En particulier, la fréquence des pointes épileptiques était significativement plus élevée lorsque le patient avait recours au processus de conversion grapho-phonémique. Les enregistrements électroencéphalographiques (EEG) ont révélé que les pointes épileptiques étaient localisées dans le gyrus précentral gauche, indépendamment de la voie de lecture. La seconde étude avait comme objectif de valider un protocole de lecture à voix haute ayant recours à la spectroscopie près du spectre de l’infrarouge (SPIR) pour investiguer les circuits neuronaux qui sous-tendent la lecture chez les normo-lecteurs. Douze participants neurologiquement sains ont lu à voix haute des mots irréguliers et des non-mots lors d’enregistrements en SPIR. Les résultats ont montré que la lecture des deux types de stimuli impliquait des régions cérébrales bilatérales communes incluant le gyrus frontal inférieur, le gyrus prémoteur et moteur, le cortex somatosensoriel associatif, le gyrus temporal moyen et supérieur, le gyrus supramarginal, le gyrus angulaire et le cortex visuel. Les concentrations totales d’hémoglobine (HbT) dans les gyri frontaux inférieurs bilatéraux étaient plus élevées dans la lecture des non-mots que dans celle des mots irréguliers. Ce résultat suggère que le gyrus frontal inférieur joue un rôle dans la conversion grapho-phonémique, qui caractérise la voie de lecture phonologique. Cette étude a confirmé le potentiel de la SPIR pour l’investigation des corrélats neuronaux des deux voies de lecture. Une des retombées importantes de cette thèse consiste en l’utilisation du protocole de lecture en SPIR pour investiguer les troubles de la lecture. Ces investigations pourraient aider à mieux établir les liens entre le fonctionnement cérébral et la lecture dans les dyslexies développementales et acquises.

Identificación del orden temporal en sonidos de habla y de no-habla.

Resumen en español e inglés. Resumen tomado del autor. Notas al final

A shift to randomness of brain oscillations in people with autism

BACKGROUND: Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) enables investigation of the intrinsic functional organization of the brain. Fractal parameters such as the Hurst exponent, H, describe the complexity of endogenous low-frequency fMRI time series on a continuum from random (H = .5) to ordered (H = 1). Shifts in fractal scaling of physiological time series have been associated with neurological and cardiac conditions. METHODS: Resting-state fMRI time series were recorded in 30 male adults with an autism spectrum condition (ASC) and 33 age- and IQ-matched male volunteers. The Hurst exponent was estimated in the wavelet domain and between-group differences were investigated at global and voxel level and in regions known to be involved in autism. RESULTS: Complex fractal scaling of fMRI time series was found in both groups but globally there was a significant shift to randomness in the ASC (mean H = .758, SD = .045) compared with neurotypical volunteers (mean H = .788, SD = .047). Between-group differences in H, which was always reduced in the ASC group, were seen in most regions previously reported to be involved in autism, including cortical midline structures, medial temporal structures, lateral temporal and parietal structures, insula, amygdala, basal ganglia, thalamus, and inferior frontal gyrus. Severity of autistic symptoms was negatively correlated with H in retrosplenial and right anterior insular cortex. CONCLUSIONS: Autism is associated with a small but significant shift to randomness of endogenous brain oscillations. Complexity measures may provide physiological indicators for autism as they have done for other medical conditions.

Motor brain regions are involved in the encoding of delayed intentions: a fMRI study

In studies of prospective memory, recall of the content of delayed intentions is normally excellent, probably because they contain actions that have to be enacted at a later time. Action words encoded for later enactment are more accessible from memory than those encoded for later verbal report [Freeman, J.E., and Ellis, J.A. 2003a. The representation of delayed intentions: A prospective subject-performed task? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 976-992.]. As this higher assessibility is lost when the intended actions have to be enacted during encoding, or when a motor interference task is introduced concurrent to intention encoding, Freeman and Ellis suggested that the advantage of to-be-enacted actions is due to additional preparatory motor operations during encoding. Accordingly, in a fMRI study with 10 healthy young participants, we investigated whether motor brain regions are differentially activated during verbal encoding of actions for later enactment with the right hand in contrast to verbal encoding of actions for later verbal report. We included an additional condition of verbal encoding of abstract verbs for later verbal report to investigate whether the semantic motor information inherent in action verbs in contrast to abstract verbs activates motor brain regions different from those involved in the verbal encoding of actions for later enactment. Differential activation for the verbal encoding of to-be-enacted actions in contrast to to-be-reported actions was found in brain regions known to be involved in covert motor preparation for hand movements, i.e. the postcentral gyrus, the precuneus, the dorsal and ventral premotor cortex, the posterior middle temporal gyrus and the inferior parietal lobule. There was no overlap between these brain regions and those differentially activated during the verbal encoding of actions in contrast to abstract verbs for later verbal report. Consequently, the results of this fMRI study suggest the presence of preparatory motor operations during the encoding of delayed intentions requiring a future motor response, which cannot be attributed to semantic information inherent to action verbs. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The roles of perirhinal cortex, postrhinal cortex, and the fornix in memory for objects, contexts, and events in the rat

Investigation of the anatomical substructure of the medial temporal lobe has revealed a number of highly interconnected areas, which has led some to propose that the region operates as a unitary memory system. However, here we outline the results of a number of studies from our laboratories, which investigate the contributions of the rat's perirhinal cortex and postrhinal cortex to memory, concentrating particularly on their respective roles in memory for objects. By contrasting patterns of impairment and spared abilities on a number of related tasks, we suggest that perirhinal cortex and postrhinal cortex make distinctive contributions to learning and memory: for example, that postrhinal cortex is important in learning about within-scene position and context. We also provide evidence that despite the strong connectivity between these cortical regions and the hippocampus, the hippocampus, as evidenced by lesions of the fornix, has a distinct function of its own-combining information about objects, positions, and contexts.

Temporal coupling between stimulus-evoked neural activity and hemodynamic responses from individual cortical columns

Using previously published data from the whisker barrel cortex of anesthetized rodents (Berwick et al 2008 J. Neurophysiol. 99 787–98) we investigated whether highly spatially localized stimulus-evoked cortical hemodynamics responses displayed a linear time-invariant (LTI) relationship with neural activity. Presentation of stimuli to individual whiskers of 2 s and 16 s durations produced hemodynamics and neural activity spatially localized to individual cortical columns. Two-dimensional optical imaging spectroscopy (2D-OIS) measured hemoglobin responses, while multi-laminar electrophysiology recorded neural activity. Hemoglobin responses to 2 s stimuli were deconvolved with underlying evoked neural activity to estimate impulse response functions which were then convolved with neural activity evoked by 16 s stimuli to generate predictions of hemodynamic responses. An LTI system more adequately described the temporal neuro-hemodynamics coupling relationship for these spatially localized sensory stimuli than in previous studies that activated the entire whisker cortex. An inability to predict the magnitude of an initial 'peak' in the total and oxy- hemoglobin responses was alleviated when excluding responses influenced by overlying arterial components. However, this did not improve estimation of the hemodynamic responses return to baseline post-stimulus cessation.

The resting-state neurovascular coupling relationship: rapid changes in spontaneous neural activity in the somatosensory cortex are associated with haemodynamic fluctuations that resemble stimulus-evoked haemodynamics

Although promise exists for patterns of resting-state blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) brain connectivity to be used as biomarkers of early brain pathology, a full understanding of the nature of the relationship between neural activity and spontaneous fMRI BOLD fluctuations is required before such data can be correctly interpreted. To investigate this issue, we combined electrophysiological recordings of rapid changes in multi-laminar local field potentials from the somatosensory cortex of anaesthetized rats with concurrent two-dimensional optical imaging spectroscopy measurements of resting-state haemodynamics that underlie fluctuations in the BOLD fMRI signal. After neural ‘events’ were identified, their time points served to indicate the start of an epoch in the accompanying haemodynamic fluctuations. Multiple epochs for both neural ‘events’ and the accompanying haemodynamic fluctuations were averaged. We found that the averaged epochs of resting-state haemodynamic fluctuations taken after neural ‘events’ closely resembled the temporal profile of stimulus-evoked cortical haemodynamics. Furthermore, we were able to demonstrate that averaged epochs of resting-state haemodynamic fluctuations resembling the temporal profile of stimulus-evoked haemodynamics could also be found after peaks in neural activity filtered into specific electroencephalographic frequency bands (theta, alpha, beta, and gamma). This technique allows investigation of resting-state neurovascular coupling using methodologies that are directly comparable to that developed for investigating stimulus-evoked neurovascular responses.

Increased resting state functional connectivity in the default mode network in recovered anorexia nervosa.

Functional brain imaging studies have shown abnormal neural activity in individuals recovered from anorexia nervosa (AN) during both cognitive and emotional task paradigms. It has been suggested that this abnormal activity which persists into recovery might underpin the neurobiology of the disorder and constitute a neural biomarker for AN. However, no study to date has assessed functional changes in neural networks in the absence of task-induced activity in those recovered from AN. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whole brain resting state functional connectivity in nonmedicated women recovered from anorexia nervosa. Functional magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained from 16 nonmedicated participants recovered from anorexia nervosa and 15 healthy control participants. Independent component analysis revealed functionally relevant resting state networks. Dual regression analysis revealed increased temporal correlation (coherence) in the default mode network (DMN) which is thought to be involved in self-referential processing. Specifically, compared to healthy control participants the recovered anorexia nervosa participants showed increased temporal coherence between the DMN and the precuneus and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex/inferior frontal gyrus. The findings support the view that dysfunction in resting state functional connectivity in regions involved in self-referential processing and cognitive control might be a vulnerability marker for the development of anorexia nervosa.

Disorder-specific functional abnormalities during temporal discounting in youth with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Autism and comorbid ADHD and Autism

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are often comorbid and share cognitive abnormalities in temporal foresight. A key question is whether shared cognitive phenotypes are based on common or different underlying pathophysiologies and whether comorbid patients have additive neurofunctional deficits, resemble one of the disorders or have a different pathophysiology. We compared age- and IQ-matched boys with non-comorbid ADHD (18), non-comorbid ASD (15), comorbid ADHD and ASD (13) and healthy controls (18) using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during a temporal discounting task. Only the ASD and the comorbid groups discounted delayed rewards more steeply. The fMRI data showed both shared and disorder-specific abnormalities in the three groups relative to controls in their brain-behaviour associations. The comorbid group showed both unique and more severe brain-discounting associations than controls and the non-comorbid patient groups in temporal discounting areas of ventromedial and lateral prefrontal cortex, ventral striatum and anterior cingulate, suggesting that comorbidity is neither an endophenocopy of the two pure disorders nor an additive pathology.

Abnormal functional activation and maturation of fronto-striato-temporal and cerebellar regions during sustained attention in autism spectrum disorder

Objective Sustained attention problems are common in people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and may have significant implications for the diagnosis and management of ASD and associated comorbidities. Furthermore, ASD has been associated with atypical structural brain development. The authors used functional MRI to investigate the functional brain maturation of attention between childhood and adulthood in people with ASD. Method Using a parametrically modulated sustained attention/vigilance task, the authors examined brain activation and its linear correlation with age between childhood and adulthood in 46 healthy male adolescents and adults (ages 11–35 years) with ASD and 44 age- and IQ-matched typically developing comparison subjects. Results Relative to the comparison group, the ASD group had significantly poorer task performance and significantly lower activation in inferior prefrontal cortical, medial prefrontal cortical, striato-thalamic, and lateral cerebellar regions. A conjunction analysis of this analysis with group differences in brain-age correlations showed that the comparison group, but not the ASD group, had significantly progressively increased activation with age in these regions between childhood and adulthood, suggesting abnormal functional brain maturation in ASD. Several regions that showed both abnormal activation and functional maturation were associated with poorer task performance and clinical measures of ASD and inattention. Conclusions The results provide first evidence that abnormalities in sustained attention networks in individuals with ASD are associated with underlying abnormalities in the functional brain maturation of these networks between late childhood and adulthood.

The anterior temporal lobes support residual comprehension in Wernicke’s aphasia

Wernicke’s aphasia occurs following a stroke to classical language comprehension regions in the left temporoparietal cortex. Consequently, auditory-verbal comprehension is significantly impaired in Wernicke’s aphasia but the capacity to comprehend visually presented materials (written words and pictures) is partially spared. This study used fMRI to investigate the neural basis of written word and picture semantic processing in Wernicke’s aphasia, with the wider aim of examining how the semantic system is altered following damage to the classical comprehension regions. Twelve participants with Wernicke’s aphasia and twelve control participants performed semantic animate-inanimate judgements and a visual height judgement baseline task. Whole brain and ROI analysis in Wernicke’s aphasia and control participants found that semantic judgements were underpinned by activation in the ventral and anterior temporal lobes bilaterally. The Wernicke’s aphasia group displayed an “over-activation” in comparison to control participants, indicating that anterior temporal lobe regions become increasingly influential following reduction in posterior semantic resources. Semantic processing of written words in Wernicke’s aphasia was additionally supported by recruitment of the right anterior superior temporal lobe, a region previously associated with recovery from auditory-verbal comprehension impairments. Overall, the results concord with models which indicate that the anterior temporal lobes are crucial for multimodal semantic processing and that these regions may be accessed without support from classic posterior comprehension regions.

Dynamic Changes in the Mental Rotation Network Revealed by Pattern Recognition Analysis of fMRI Data

We investigated the temporal dynamics and changes in connectivity in the mental rotation network through the application of spatio-temporal support vector machines (SVMs). The spatio-temporal SVM [Mourao-Miranda, J., Friston, K. J., et al. (2007). Dynamic discrimination analysis: A spatial-temporal SVM. Neuroimage, 36, 88-99] is a pattern recognition approach that is suitable for investigating dynamic changes in the brain network during a complex mental task. It does not require a model describing each component of the task and the precise shape of the BOLD impulse response. By defining a time window including a cognitive event, one can use spatio-temporal fMRI observations from two cognitive states to train the SVM. During the training, the SVM finds the discriminating pattern between the two states and produces a discriminating weight vector encompassing both voxels and time (i.e., spatio-temporal maps). We showed that by applying spatio-temporal SVM to an event-related mental rotation experiment, it is possible to discriminate between different degrees of angular disparity (0 degrees vs. 20 degrees, 0 degrees vs. 60 degrees, and 0 degrees vs. 100 degrees), and the discrimination accuracy is correlated with the difference in angular disparity between the conditions. For the comparison with highest accuracy (08 vs. 1008), we evaluated how the most discriminating areas (visual regions, parietal regions, supplementary, and premotor areas) change their behavior over time. The frontal premotor regions became highly discriminating earlier than the superior parietal cortex. There seems to be a parcellation of the parietal regions with an earlier discrimination of the inferior parietal lobe in the mental rotation in relation to the superior parietal. The SVM also identified a network of regions that had a decrease in BOLD responses during the 100 degrees condition in relation to the 0 degrees condition (posterior cingulate, frontal, and superior temporal gyrus). This network was also highly discriminating between the two conditions. In addition, we investigated changes in functional connectivity between the most discriminating areas identified by the spatio-temporal SVM. We observed an increase in functional connectivity between almost all areas activated during the 100 degrees condition (bilateral inferior and superior parietal lobe, bilateral premotor area, and SMA) but not between the areas that showed a decrease in BOLD response during the 100 degrees condition.

Parâmetros bioecológicos de Gryon gallardoi (Brethes) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) e modelagem da dinâmica espaço-temporal da sua interação com Spartocera dentiventris (Berg) (Hemiptera: Coreidae) através da simulação de múltiplos agentes

Estudos referentes à dinâmica espaço-temporal da interação hospedeiro-parasitóide são de fundamental importância para o desenvolvimento de técnicas de manejo de insetos em agroecossistemas. Uma recente abordagem têm sido o estudo de populações através da simulação computacional dos indivíduos que a compõem. Este método tem possibilitado a incorporação de importantes características como individualidade e estrutura espacial nos modelos teóricos. Neste sentido, o presente estudo visou a elaboração de um modelo baseado no comportamento individual para simular a dinâmica espaço-temporal da interação Spartocera dentiventris (Berg) (Hemiptera: Coreidae), inseto associado à cultura do fumo, e de seu inimigo natural, o parasitóide de ovos Gryon gallardoi (Brethes) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). Para a elaboração do modelo, estudos sobre a bioecologia de G. gallardoi foram desenvolvidos, de modo a investigar (i) o efeito da temperatura no seu desenvolvimento e viabilidade, (ii) a mortalidade de imaturos em campo, (iii) os parâmetros reprodutivos e a longevidade dos adultos, (iv) os padrões de dispersão em campo e (v) a resposta funcional e a interferência mútua dos parasitóides em diferentes densidades de ovos de S. dentiventris. No intuito de avaliar a capacidade de predição do modelo elaborado, a dinâmica espaço-temporal de ovos sadios e parasitados de S. dentiventris foi acompanhada em um cultivo de fumo, estabelecido em área experimental do Departamento de Fitossanidade da Faculdade de Agronomia da UFRGS, Porto Alegre (30o01’S e 51o13’O), RS, Brasil A viabilidade do desenvolvimento dos parasitóides na faixa de 20 a 30oC não diferiu significativamente, alcançando 98,8%. O tempo de desenvolvimento ovo-adulto de machos e fêmeas foi inversamente proporcional ao aumento da temperatura. Os valores estimados para o limite térmico inferior de desenvolvimento e para a constante térmica foram 15,5oC e 185,19GD para machos e 15,6oC e 192,31GD para fêmeas. Diversos fatores afetam o sucesso de imaturos de G. gallardoi em campo, sendo que o malogro e a predação por sugadores são os principais responsáveis pela emergência de apenas 37,87% dos adultos. Foi observado um período médio de oviposição de 10,1 ± 1,74 dias, com o pico de oviposição no segundo dia, sendo depositados ao longo dos mesmos uma média de 67,5 ± 11,29 ovos por fêmea. Fêmeas de G. gallardoi foram significativamente mais longevas que os machos, vivendo, respectivamente, 13,7 ± 1,94 e 10,6 ± 1,78 dias. A razão sexual total observada foi de 0,79. A dispersão de G. gallardoi em cultivo de fumo não foi sensivelmente influenciada pelo vento, sendo estimada uma capacidade de locomoção diária média para fêmeas de no mínimo 7,62 m. O padrão de parasitismo de G. gallardoi ajustou-se perfeitamente à resposta funcional do tipo II (pseudo-r2= 0,99), sendo obtidos os valores de 0,0557 e 0,9989 h para os componentes a’ e Tm , respectivamente O aumento da densidade de parasitóides acarretou, de maneira geral, uma diminuição no número de ovos parasitados por parasitóide. Foi obtido para o índice de interferência mútua “m” o valor 0,626. A dinâmica temporal de S. dentiventris – G. gallardoi simulada ajustou-se muito bem aos dados obtidos em campo (r2= 0,82 para ovos sadios e r2= 0,72 para ovos parasitados). Da mesma forma, os arranjos espaciais dos ovos e da taxa de parasitismo observados em campo foram satisfatoriamente reproduzidos através das simulações computacionais. Os resultados indicam que G. gallardoi apresenta um bom potencial para controlar populações de S. dentiventris, seja pela sua viabilidade de desenvolvimento em uma larga faixa de temperatura ou pela sua capacidade reprodutiva e padrões de dispersão similares àqueles observados para outras espécies já utilizadas no controle biológico de insetos. Por outro lado, a sensibilidade às baixas temperaturas, a alta mortalidade de imaturos observada em campo e uma resposta funcional do tipo II podem ser fatores que se contrapõe ao sucesso do parasitóide no controle de populações de S. dentiventris. Considerando a independência entre os dados observados e os dados obtidos através de simulações, o modelo elaborado obteve pleno sucesso em simular a dinâmica da interação S. dentiventris – G. gallardoi a partir do comportamento individual dos diferentes agentes Duas importantes características associadas à estabilidade de sistemas hospedeiro-parasitóide foram observadas no estudo de campo e reproduzidas no modelo – um padrão de parasitismo inversamente dependente da densidade dos hospedeiros e uma resposta agregativa dos parasitóides em algumas regiões do sistema. Desta forma, futuros estudos podem avaliar, a partir de um enfoque baseado no indivíduo, quais mecanismos são responsáveis por tais comportamentos e qual é o seu efeito na dinâmica do sistema. Conclui-se, através deste trabalho, que o estudo da dinâmica de populações através de uma abordagem baseada no indivíduo, com base em modelos computacionais, pode ser uma alternativa viável para superar as limitações e a complexidade inerente ao uso de modelos populacionais analíticos. Desta forma, o maior realismo implícito nestes modelos os torna ferramentas muito úteis para diversas áreas da ecologia aplicada, particularmente para a entomologia agrícola.

Pico de força das articulações do membro inferior e ativação muscular da coluna dorso-lombar durante o manuseio de carga com estilo livre

o objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar o pico de força articular (FA) do tornozelo, joelho e quadril do membro inferior direito, e a ativação eletromiográfia (AE) da musculatura da coluna dorso-lombar no manuseio de carga, no movimento de colocar e retirar uma caixa situada no chão e na altura dos olhos. Foram utilizadas cargas correspondentes a I% e 10% da massa corporal do sujeito, totalizando-se oito tarefas. A amostra foi composta por 4 mulheres e 4 homens, na faixa etária entre 23 a 36 anos. Nenhuma instrução foi dada em relação à forma de execução da tarefa caracterizando-a como estilo livre. Para a análise do pico de FA utilizou-se a dinâmica inversa 2D, com auxílio de rotinas desenvolvidas no software MATLAB. Para análise da AE foi utilizada a eletromiografia de superfície. Adotou-se um Índice Postural (IP) nas tarefas de altura baixa para quantificar a postura no início da retirada da carga, e no final da colocação da mesma. Para o tratamento estatístico foi realizado o teste de normalidade de Shapiro-Wlik, e de homogeneidade de Levene após a ANOVA e post-hoc Tukey-b. O nível de significância foi p< 0.05. Em todas as situações o pico de FA apresentou um padrão em que os valores foram maiores no tornozelo, seguidos pelo joelho e depois pelo quadril. O fator que influenciou significativamente o pico de FA, o valor RMS e pico de AE foi a altura, sendo os maiores valores encontrados na altura baixa com peso pesado no movimento de retirar. Em uma relação temporal, os picos de FA e picos de AE na tarefa da altura baixa no movimento de retirar, em sua maioria, ocorreram na primeira metade do movimento, e no movimento de colocar na segunda metade. Já em uma relação temporal na tarefa da altura alta, não houve um padrão. O IP identificou que a amostra realizou uma postura predominantemente de agachamento, não havendo diferença intra e entre os sujeitos. Durante o manuseio de carga na altura baixa, o instante do pico de FA ocorreu quando o joelho e o quadril estavam em flexão máxima, e o tornozelo em desiflexão. Infere-se, então, que as articulações estudadas podem estar mais suscetíveis a lesões nestes espaços temporais ao se manusearem cargas que se encontram ao nível do chão.

Local Field Potentials in the Gustatory Cortex Carry Taste Information

It has been recently shownthat localfield potentials (LFPs)fromthe auditory and visual cortices carry information about sensory stimuli, but whether this is a universal property of sensory cortices remains to be determined. Moreover, little is known about the temporal dynamics of sensory information contained in LFPs following stimulus onset. Here we investigated the time course of the amount of stimulus information in LFPs and spikes from the gustatory cortex of awake rats subjected to tastants and water delivery on the tongue. We found that the phase and amplitude of multiple LFP frequencies carry information about stimuli, which have specific time courses after stimulus delivery. The information carried by LFP phase and amplitude was independent within frequency bands, since the joint information exhibited neither synergy nor redundancy. Tastant information in LFPs was also independent and had a different time course from the information carried by spikes. These findings support the hypothesis that the brain uses different frequency channels to dynamically code for multiple features of a stimulus.