«Einige Zeit aufs Singen verwendet». Musik als Kernressource dörflicher Kultur am Beispiel des schweizerischen 18. Jahrhunderts

Dealing with popular music in premodern times historical research usually focuses on so called “Volksmusik”. But already in the 18th century researchers were disappointed to find only few traces of imaginary “traditional” music in Switzerland. They unfortunately overlooked that common people kept on with their own stubborn musical culture: Beginning with the Reformation the authorities encouraged the communities to employ schoolmasters who were able to teach music. Their goal was that everybody should be able to participate in liturgical music actively. Over generations even people with no special musical talent adopted their own repertoire of psalms plus techniques of reading music and polyphonic singing. Spontaneous choral singing evolved into a common everyday practice. The most ambitious and brightest teachers even taught instrumental lessons at home on their proper pianos and chamber organs or encouraged the villagers to build new prestigious organs in their churches. The financial burden of such instruments weighted heavily on the communities. Some of them received financial support from the government, albeit unwillingly because it was obvious to the rulers that the villages just wanted to overtop each other. Homemade music was the most important issue in the cultural life of most parishes. Rich communes spent a lot of money to win the best voices on-site for their church choirs. Belonging to an elitists’ singer association paved the way to the farmer-village’s highlevel sociability.

The Rise and Fall of the Doctor-Patient Relationship

This talk will outline the history of the doctor-patient relationship in the West. It will touch briefly on medicine in Greek and Roman antiquity, using key texts from Hippocrates and Galen. It will also sketch the changing balance of the religious and the secular in medieval medicine. Finally, it will outline the rise of the modern personal doctor-patient relationship in the 18th century and analyze the chronic dissatisfaction that settled over relations between doctors and patients in the last quarter of the 20th century.

MEDICINE MAN IN TEXAS

The author George (Georgia?) Plunkett Red was the wife of Samuel Clark Red (1861-1940). Dr. Red was the son of Texas pioneer physician Dr. George Clark Red. Dr. Samuel Clark Red was “the county physician of Harris County, one of the organizers of the Harris County Medical Society, a fellow of the American College of Surgeons, and president of the Texas Medical Association.” Not much is known about the author, but given her husband’s position and family history, it can be surmised that she was interested in history and had access to some of the children of other pioneer medical families. There is a brief bibliography for each of the chapters. Part Two of the book consists of biographies of physicians from Texas Counties. Merle Weir, "RED, SAMUEL CLARK," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fre09), accessed December 10, 2012. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.

Réstif de la Bretonne. La transición del espacio utópico experimental al espacio reducido

La crítica tradicionalmente ha sido muy severa con Réstif de la Bretonne, a quien ha relegado a un segundo plano durante más de cien años por considerarlo un autor marginal. A principios del siglo XX es rescatado de la oscuridad gracias a las teorías freudianas pero recién en los años sesenta se estudia su obra desde otros puntos de vista. Contribuyendo a esta línea, el presente artículo intenta aportar elementos que permitan devolver a Réstif de la Bretonne el lugar que le corresponde dentro de la historia de la literatura y del pensamiento político. A lo largo del siglo XVIII el espacio adquiere un valor fundamental porque se supone que debe ser conocido y dominado para poseer las leyes del mundo entero. Dentro de este marco la novela utópica de nuestro autor titulada El Descubrimiento Austral. Novela Filosófica, textualiza posturas aparentemente disímiles acerca del espacio que convierten a Réstif en uno de los símbolos del período de transición que representa. Las ideas vertidas en esta novela nos permiten afirmar que Réstif de la Bretonne se adelanta, sin duda, a movimientos del siglo XIX como el Socialismo Utópico, el Romanticismo y el Nacionalismo.

Un mundo rural en transición : La campaña bonaerense según el Primer Censo Nacional de Población de la República Argentina (1869)

La campaña de Buenos Aires había recibido desde fines del siglo XVIII importantes corrientes migratorias interprovinciales que fueron progresivamente desplazadas por las provenientes de Europa. Si bien existen trabajos ;basados en los resultados generales, se ha abordado muy poco el ;estudio de la población a partir de las cédulas censales en sí mismas. Nos proponemos aquí observar la estructura de la población de la campaña bonaerense durante estos primeros tiempos de la inmigración masiva, aplicando una perspectiva comparada entre tres pueblos: San Antonio de Areco en la zona norte, Mercedes en el centro y San Vicente en el sur. Se prestará particular atención a la composición de la población, su origen, las actividades productivas y el proceso de urbanización. Se analizan igualmente las pautas de destino y localización geográfica de los extranjeros en los pueblos rurales, las ocupaciones preferidas y la eventual diversificación de actividades en función de las nacionalidades

Las tierras, los ganados, los trabajadores... Una posible reconstrucción de las estancias reduccionales de la experiencia jesuítica bonaerense, 1740-1752

El presente trabajo propone reconstruir el sistema productivo organizado por los misioneros de la Compañía de Jesús al sur de la jurisdicción colonial de Buenos Aires, entre 1740 y 1752. Si bien los hombres de la Compañía desarrollaron durante el siglo XVIII establecimientos productivos en todas las regiones rioplatenses, la característica de este caso se refiere a que la estancias y chacras que son descriptas tienen una vida activa de 12 años en la frontera, es decir, en territorio indígena ocupado por la reducciones pero con un dominio colonial no consolidado. Los espacios fronterizos no son habitados permanentemente por los españoles y la dominación y control del Estado suelen ser esporádicos. Por tanto, la experiencia misional se transforma en un mecanismo que pretende vigilar y controlar, pero que para existir en un territorio cuyo dominio es detentado por otras sociedades debe negociar con las mismas sus condiciones de existencia. ¿Cómo afectó esta situación a la constitución de ┤chacras' y ┤estancias' productivas? ¿En qué medida estos establecimientos se integraron a la red de establecimientos que la Compañía posee en tierras ┤españolas'? ¿La organización es similar en el ámbito fronterizo y en el ámbito ┤efectivamente' colonizado?

Un mundo rural en transición : La campaña bonaerense según el Primer Censo Nacional de Población de la República Argentina (1869)

La campaña de Buenos Aires había recibido desde fines del siglo XVIII importantes corrientes migratorias interprovinciales que fueron progresivamente desplazadas por las provenientes de Europa. Si bien existen trabajos ;basados en los resultados generales, se ha abordado muy poco el ;estudio de la población a partir de las cédulas censales en sí mismas. Nos proponemos aquí observar la estructura de la población de la campaña bonaerense durante estos primeros tiempos de la inmigración masiva, aplicando una perspectiva comparada entre tres pueblos: San Antonio de Areco en la zona norte, Mercedes en el centro y San Vicente en el sur. Se prestará particular atención a la composición de la población, su origen, las actividades productivas y el proceso de urbanización. Se analizan igualmente las pautas de destino y localización geográfica de los extranjeros en los pueblos rurales, las ocupaciones preferidas y la eventual diversificación de actividades en función de las nacionalidades

Las tierras, los ganados, los trabajadores... Una posible reconstrucción de las estancias reduccionales de la experiencia jesuítica bonaerense, 1740-1752

El presente trabajo propone reconstruir el sistema productivo organizado por los misioneros de la Compañía de Jesús al sur de la jurisdicción colonial de Buenos Aires, entre 1740 y 1752. Si bien los hombres de la Compañía desarrollaron durante el siglo XVIII establecimientos productivos en todas las regiones rioplatenses, la característica de este caso se refiere a que la estancias y chacras que son descriptas tienen una vida activa de 12 años en la frontera, es decir, en territorio indígena ocupado por la reducciones pero con un dominio colonial no consolidado. Los espacios fronterizos no son habitados permanentemente por los españoles y la dominación y control del Estado suelen ser esporádicos. Por tanto, la experiencia misional se transforma en un mecanismo que pretende vigilar y controlar, pero que para existir en un territorio cuyo dominio es detentado por otras sociedades debe negociar con las mismas sus condiciones de existencia. ¿Cómo afectó esta situación a la constitución de ┤chacras' y ┤estancias' productivas? ¿En qué medida estos establecimientos se integraron a la red de establecimientos que la Compañía posee en tierras ┤españolas'? ¿La organización es similar en el ámbito fronterizo y en el ámbito ┤efectivamente' colonizado?

Las tierras, los ganados, los trabajadores... Una posible reconstrucción de las estancias reduccionales de la experiencia jesuítica bonaerense, 1740-1752

El presente trabajo propone reconstruir el sistema productivo organizado por los misioneros de la Compañía de Jesús al sur de la jurisdicción colonial de Buenos Aires, entre 1740 y 1752. Si bien los hombres de la Compañía desarrollaron durante el siglo XVIII establecimientos productivos en todas las regiones rioplatenses, la característica de este caso se refiere a que la estancias y chacras que son descriptas tienen una vida activa de 12 años en la frontera, es decir, en territorio indígena ocupado por la reducciones pero con un dominio colonial no consolidado. Los espacios fronterizos no son habitados permanentemente por los españoles y la dominación y control del Estado suelen ser esporádicos. Por tanto, la experiencia misional se transforma en un mecanismo que pretende vigilar y controlar, pero que para existir en un territorio cuyo dominio es detentado por otras sociedades debe negociar con las mismas sus condiciones de existencia. ¿Cómo afectó esta situación a la constitución de ┤chacras' y ┤estancias' productivas? ¿En qué medida estos establecimientos se integraron a la red de establecimientos que la Compañía posee en tierras ┤españolas'? ¿La organización es similar en el ámbito fronterizo y en el ámbito ┤efectivamente' colonizado?

The Ciborium or Lantern Tower of Valencia Cathedral: Geometry, Construction and Stability

Early 18th century treatise writer Tomas Vicente Tosca1 includes in his Tratado de la montea y cortes de Canteria [On Masonry Design and Stone Cutting], what is an important documentary source about the lantern of Valencia Cathedral. Tosca writes about this lantern as an example of vaulting over cross arches without the need of buttresses. A geometrical description is followed by an explanation of the structural behavior which manifests his deep understanding of the mechanics of masonry structures. He tries to demonstrate the absence of buttresses supporting his thesis on the appropriate distribution of loads which will reduce the "empujos" [horizontal thrusts] to the point of not requiring more than the thickness of the walls to stand (Tosca [1727] 1992, 227-230). The present article2 assesses T osca' s appreciation studying how loads and the thrusts they generate are transmitted through the different masonry elements that constitute this ciborium. In order to do so, we first present a geometrical analysis and make considerations regarding its materials and construction methods to, subsequently, analyze its stability adopting an equilibrium approach within the theoretical framework of the lower bound limit analysis.

The Ciborium or Lantern Tower of Valencia Cathedral: Geometry, Construction and Stability

Early 18th century treatise writer Tomas Vicente Tosca1 includes in his Tratado de la montea y cortes de Canteria [On Masonry Design and Stone Cutting], what is an important documentary source about the lantern of Valencia Cathedral. Tosca writes about this lantern as an example of vaulting over cross arches without the need of buttresses. A geometrical description is followed by an explanation of the structural behavior which manifests his deep understanding of the mechanics of masonry structures. He tries to demonstrate the absence of buttresses supporting his thesis on the appropriate distribution of loads which will reduce the "empujos" [horizontal thrusts] to the point of not requiring more than the thickness of the walls to stand (Tosca [1727] 1992, 227-230). The present article2 assesses T osca' s appreciation studying how loads and the thrusts they generate are transmitted through the different masonry elements that constitute this ciborium. In order to do so, we first present a geometrical analysis and make considerations regarding its materials and construction methods to, subsequently, analyze its stability adopting an equilibrium approach within the theoretical framework of the lower bound limit analysis.

Wedges and plate-bandes: mechanical theories after De la Hire

Plate-bandes are straight masonry arches (they are called, also, flat arches or lintel arches). Ideally they have the surfaces of extrados and intrados plane and horizontal. The stones or bricks have radial joints converging usually in one centre. The voussoirs have the form of wedges and in French they are called "claveaux". A plate-bande is, in fact, a lintel made of several stones and the proportions of lintels and plate-bandes are similar. Proportions of plate-bandes, that is the relationship between the thickness t and the span s (t/s)varies, typically between 1/4–1/3 in thick plate-bandes, and is less than 1/20 in the most slender ones. A ratio of circa 1/8 was usual in the 18th Century and follows a simple geometrical rule: the centre form with the intrados an equilateral triangle and the plate-bande should contain an arc of circle. The joints are usually plane, but in some cases present a «rebated» or «stepped» form. Plate-bandes exert an inclined thrust as any masonry arch. This thrust is usually very high and it requires either massive buttresses, or to be built in the middle of thick walls. Master builders and architects have tried since antiquity to calculate the abutment necessary for any arch. A modern architect or engineer will measure the arch thrust in units of force, kN or tons. Traditionally, the thrust has been measured as the size of the buttresses to resist it safely. Old structural rules, then, addressed the design problem establishing a relationship between the span and the depth of the buttress. These were empirical rules, particular for every type of arch or structure in every epoch. Thus, the typical gothic buttress is 1/4 of the vault span, but a Renaissance or baroque barrel vault will need more than 1/3 of the span. A plate-bande would require more than one half of the span; this is precisely the rule cited by the French engineer Gautier, who tried unsuccessfully to justify it by static reasons. They were used, typically, to form the lintels of windows or doors (1-2 m, typically); in Antiquity they were used, also, though rarely, at the gates of city walls or in niches (ca. 2 m, reaching 5.2 m). Plate-bandes may show particular problems: it is not unusual that some sliding of the voussoirs can be observed, particularly in thick plate-bandes. The stepped joints on Fig. 1, left, were used to avoid this problem. There are other «hidden» methods, like iron cramps or the use of stone wedges, etc. In seismic zones these devices were usual. Another problem relates to the deformation; a slight yielding of the abutments, or even the compression of the mortar joints, may lead to some cracking and the descent of the central keystone. Even a tiny descent will convert the original straight line of the intrados in a broken line with a visible «kink» or angle in the middle. Of course, both problems should be avoided. Finally, the wedge form of the voussoirs lead to acute angles in the stones and this can produce partial fractures; this occurs usually at the inferior border of the springers at the abutments. It follows, that to build a successful plate-bande is not an easy matter. Also, the structural study of plate-bandes is far from simple, and mechanics and geometry are related in a particular way. In the present paper we will concentrate on the structural aspects and their constructive consequences, with a historical approach. We will outline the development of structural analysis of plate-bandes from ca. 1700 until today. This brief history has a more than purely academic interest. Different approaches and theories pointed to particular problem, and though the solution given may have been incorrect, the question posed was often pertinent. The paper ends with the application of modern Limit Analysis of Masonry Structures, developed mainly by professor Heyman in the last fifty years. The work aims, also, to give some clues for the actual architect and engineer involved in the analysis or restoration of masonry buildings.

La arquitectura residencial en El Real Sitio de El Pardo (1885 - 1965): Orígenes, tipos y configuración del trazado urbano

Tras la denominación de Real Sitio a mediados del siglo XVIII, bajo el reinado de Fernando VI, su sucesor Carlos III procedió a la incorporación a su Patrimonio de todos los Montes y Bosques de El Pardo. Comenzó entonces el proceso de planeamiento urbano y de construcción arquitectónica que finalizó en torno al año 1800. En lo sucesivo, no sólo se mantiene el curso de la conservación y consolidación de los edificios principales, sino que se realiza obra nueva de índole civil. Algunos edificios cambiaron de propiedad y de uso hasta que tras la Guerra Civil se procedió a la mayor transformación vivida por el Real Sitio. El intervalo que aquí se trata (1885 a 1965), no ha suscitado, en los estudios sobre El Pardo, atención suficiente al no acontecer obra nueva de carácter patrimonial ni ha sido objeto de análisis el trazado y la fisonomía del centro urbano residencial del pueblo que Carlos III configuró. Sin embargo se estima relevante analizar los cambios en la actividad residencial; en primer lugar porque coexiste con la arquitectura oficial y, por tanto, se entiende necesario un análisis global del conjunto y en segundo lugar porque facilita la comprensión sobre la imagen original de carácter histórico del conjunto de finales del siglo XVIII. Este marco temporal determina tres partes principales de estudio que estructuran la presente tesis, cuyas fechas establecen los intervalos históricos clave: Actuaciones sobre el núcleo urbano consolidado (1885-1931). Cese de la actividad constructiva (1931-1939). Propuestas regeneradoras y crecimiento acelerado (1939-1965). Dentro de ellos se establecen, a su vez, dos subcapítulos diferenciados con la finalidad de explicar los sucesos que pautaron los cambios trascendentales en la historia de El Pardo. En el estudio del estado de la cuestión se observa que en El Pardo, al igual que sucede en otros Reales Sitios, se investigan los edificios destacados como el Palacio, la Casita del Príncipe, la Casa de Oficios y la Casa de Infantes desde el punto de vista de su historia pero no desde la arquitectura ni de cómo esta afecta al desarrollo del trazado y por tanto al contexto urbano. Se manifiestan determinadas carencias de tratamiento gráfico que facilitarían la comprensión histórica mediante el análisis de la forma y cómo esta ha ido variando sustancialmente. El concepto de escala y orientación reordena el estudio, no sólo de estos edificios protagonistas sino de los que se entretejen a su alrededor y componen el conjunto histórico, lo cual aporta nuevas conclusiones al estado de la cuestión que aquí compete. El principal objetivo de la tesis es, por tanto, contribuir a la dimensión patrimonial mediante el estudio de la arquitectura residencial del pueblo de El Pardo y en cómo esta ha ido conformando y consolidando el entramado urbano original en torno a edificios de la realeza y corte. Analizar aquellos edificios que perduran, los que fueron reconstruidos, rehabilitados, y apuntar acontecimientos históricos que formularon la actual fisonomía. Sistematizar y reordenar sobre la traza actual los edificios que desaparecieron, nos da las pistas sobre las modificaciones en concepto de escala arquitectónica y urbana. El estudio de las fuentes y establecer una metodología de conexión de estas, ayuda a detectar dónde no se han dirigido aún los focos de interés así como las lagunas que han quedado por explorar con el fin de responder a nuevas hipótesis, conceder conclusiones y abrir otras líneas de investigación. Como conclusiones generales, la tesis aporta documentación nueva sobre el objeto de estudio, no solicitada, digitalizada o publicada con anterioridad. En ella se analizan los procesos de configuración, consolidación y transformación en el Real Sitio mediante la sistematización de estados comparativos. Con respecto al estudio de los diferentes contextos natural y urbano la tesis analiza cómo los accidentes naturales, el desarrollo de infraestructuras y el impulso de la agronomía afectaron a El Pardo a partir del siglo XIX, y estudia los procesos de configuración, consolidación y transformación en el Real Sitio mediante la sistematización de la documentación encontrada de manera gráfica y escrita. En relación al marco patrimonial arquitectónico, la tesis analiza los procesos edificatorios históricos. Se estudian, a su vez, cambios de ocupación o uso que derivaron en reformas, ampliaciones, obras de nueva planta e incluso en derribos, así como los proyectos no materializados o que se llevaron a cabo de manera parcial. Con respecto al análisis del momento histórico, la tesis analiza las posibles afectaciones, políticas, sociales y económicas en las etapas de Monarquía, Segunda República, Guerra Civil y Posguerra. Por último, la tesis abre cuatro vías de investigación (que ya se han tratado y avanzado en parte pero que escapan a los límites de este trabajo) que pueden plantear nuevas hipótesis, reportando así respuestas sobre objetos de estudio complementarios y paralelos al presente. Estas refieren a análisis más concretos sobre El Palacio Real de El Pardo y la Casa de Oficios, el Camino Real de Madrid a El Pardo desde la Puerta de Hierro, los cuarteles, puertas y portilleras del Monte de El Pardo y los proyectos desarrollados por el arquitecto Diego Méndez en los Reales Sitios para el Patrimonio Nacional. ABSTRACT Following the Royal Site denomination being granted in the mid-18th Century, during the reign of Ferdinand VI, his successor Charles III proceeded to include all the Forests and Woodlands of El Pardo in his heritage. That then gave rise to the process of town planning and architectural construction that was completed around 1800. Thereafter, not only the process of conservation and consolidation of the main buildings has been maintained, but new civil engineering works have also been carried out. Some buildings changed ownership and use until, after the Civil War, the greatest transformation experienced by the Royal Site was undertaken. The time frame this paper concerns (1885 to 1965), has not attracted sufficient attention in studies of El Pardo due to there having been no new works with heritage status, nor has there been an analysis of the layout and external appearance of the residential centre in the town once conceived by Charles III. However, it is considered relevant to analyse the changes in residential activity, firstly, because it coexists with the official architecture and, thus, it is considered necessary to perform a global analysis of the complex and, secondly, because it facilitates a historical understanding of the original appearance of the complex at the end of the 18th Century. This time framework defines three main parts of the study that provide the structure of this thesis, the dates of which establish the key historical time frames: Actions in the consolidated town centre (1885-1931). Cessation of construction works (1931-1939). Proposals of regeneration and accelerated growth (1939-1965). Two distinct sub-chapters are also established within these, in order to explain the events that marked the transcendental changes in the history of El Pardo. When studying the subject matter, it is noted that in El Pardo, as is the case in other Royal Sites, outstanding buildings such as the Palace, the Prince's Cottage, the Trades House and the Infantes House are usually researched strictly from the point of view of their history, but not from an architectural perspective, nor analysing how that affects the development of the site layout and thus the urban area. Specific shortcomings are evident in the graphic treatment that would have otherwise facilitated a historical understanding through the analysis of the shape and the way it has gradually undergone substantial variation. The concept of scale and orientation reorganises the study, not only of these key buildings, but also of those that are woven around them and make up the historic complex, allowing entirely new conclusions concerning the subject matter analysed herein. Therefore, the main purpose of this thesis is to outline our heritage through the study of the residential architecture of the town of El Pardo and the analysis of the way the original town has been built up and consolidated around the buildings erected by royalty and the court; to analyse the buildings that still remain, those that were rebuilt, refurbished, and to note historic events that shaped its current appearance. To this end, a systematic classification and reorganisation on the current urban layout of the buildings that have disappeared will give us the key to understand changes in the concept of architectural and urban scale. Studying the sources and establishing a methodology to connect them will help us detect those areas where the focus of interest has not concentrated yet, and will also reveal the gaps that remain unexplored, in order to respond to new hypotheses, reach new conclusions and open up new lines of research. As general conclusions, this thesis provides new documentation on the subject matter that had not been requested, digitized or published before. There we find an analysis of the processes of configuration, consolidation and transformation of the Royal Site through a systematic classification of comparative states. With regard to the study of the multiple natural and urban environments, this thesis analyses the way natural features, development of infrastructures and agricultural driving forces affected El Pardo as of the 19th Century, and it studies the processes of configuration, consolidation and transformation of the Royal Site by systematically classifying the documentation found in graphic and written documents. In relation to the architectural heritage framework, this thesis analyses historical building processes. Likewise, a study is also performed on the changes in land occupation or use that led to reforms, extensions, new buildings and even to demolitions, as well as on unrealized projects, or even on those that were partially implemented. As for the analysis of the historical time period, this thesis assesses the potential political, social and economic effects of the Monarchy, Second Republic, Civil War and Post-War Periods. Finally, this thesis opens up four lines of investigation (that have already been discussed and partially advanced, but which fall beyond the scope of this work) that could pose new hypotheses, thus giving answer to other subject matters parallel and complementary to the one assessed herein. These refer to more specific analyses of El Palacio Real de El Pardo (Royal Palace of El Pardo) and the Casa de Oficios (Trades House), the Royal Highway from Madrid to El Pardo from Puerta de Hierro, the barracks, gates and entrances to estates in the Woodlands of El Pardo and the projects developed on the Royal Sites by the architect Diego Méndez for the National Heritage.

Detection of 400-year-old Yersinia pestis DNA in human dental pulp: An approach to the diagnosis of ancient septicemia

Ancient septicemic plague epidemics were reported to have killed millions of people for 2 millenniums. However, confident diagnosis of ancient septicemia solely on the basis of historical clinical observations is not possible. The lack of suitable infected material has prevented direct demonstration of ancient septicemia; thus, the history of most infections such as plague remains hypothetical. The durability of dental pulp, together with its natural sterility, makes it a suitable material on which to base such research. We hypothesized that it would be a lasting refuge for Yersinia pestis, the plague agent. DNA extracts were made from the dental pulp of 12 unerupted teeth extracted from skeletons excavated from 16th and 18th century French graves of persons thought to have died of plague (“plague teeth”) and from 7 ancient negative control teeth. PCRs incorporating ancient DNA extracts and primers specific for the human β-globin gene demonstrated the absence of inhibitors in these preparations. The incorporation of primers specific for Y. pestis rpoB (the RNA polymerase β-subunit-encoding gene) and the recognized virulence-associated pla (the plasminogen activator-encoding gene) repeatedly yielded products that had a nucleotide sequence indistinguishable from that of modern day isolates of the bacterium. The specific pla sequence was obtained from 6 of 12 plague skeleton teeth but 0 of 7 negative controls (P < 0.034, Fisher exact test). A nucleic acid-based confirmation of ancient plague was achieved for historically identified victims, and we have confirmed the presence of the disease at the end of 16th century in France. Dental pulp is an attractive target in the quest to determine the etiology of septicemic illnesses detected in ancient corpses. Molecular techniques could be applied to this material to resolve historical outbreaks.

Erasmus Darwin e os seres vivos: concepções de \'evolução\' e herança

Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) apresentou suas ideias evolutivas principalmente no fim do século XVIII. No entanto, elas não foram consideradas na época. Seu neto, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), na 6ª edição do Origin of species as avaliou de modo negativo, comparando-as às concepções equivocadas de Lamarck. O objetivo desta dissertação é inicialmente, descrever as concepções de hereditariedade e evolução de Erasmus, considerando o contexto de sua época. Além disso, procura esclarecer se o tratamento recebido se deveu a uma proposta fraca ou se ela mereceria uma maior consideração. Esta dissertação contém uma Introdução e quatro capítulos. O Capítulo 1 discute a vida, trabalhos e contexto em que Erasmus apresentou suas ideias. O Capítulo 2 lida com as concepções de herança e evolução presentes em Zoonomia. O Capítulo 3 discute sobre as concepções de Erasmus sobre a transformação das espécies nas plantas. O Capítulo 4 compara as concepções evolutivas de Erasmus com as de Lamarck. O Capítulo 5 procura responder às perguntas colocadas no início desta pesquisa e apresenta algumas considerações finais sobre o assunto discutido. Esta pesquisa leva à conclusão de que a transmutação das espécies não era o principal interesse de Erasmus. Ele não ofereceu uma fundamentação empírica para suas ideias. Este fato, juntamente com a situação sócio-político-religiosa da época, muito provavelmente contribuiu para a recepção sofrida. Além disso, embora existam algumas semelhanças entre as propostas de Erasmus e Lamarck, existem também grandes diferenças tais como a abrangência da pesquisa, o espaço dedicado à discussão das ideias, a fundamentação oferecida, dentre outras. Erasmus não propôs uma teoria coerente lidando com desde a origem da vida até o aparecimento do homem como Lamarck. Ele somente apresentou algumas ideias a esse respeito em obras dedicadas a outros assuntos.