Fragmentation energy in rock avalanches

La fragmentation est un des mécanismes opérant lors d'avalanche rocheuses. La quantification de l'énergie associée à ce mécanisme permettrait d'apprécier l'influence de celui-ci sur la phase post-rupture d'une avalanche rocheuse. Dans cet article, les distributions des tailles des blocs du massif rocheux et des débris sont présentées et comparées pour neuf cas d'avalanches rocheuses : cinq dans les montagnes Rocheuses canadiennes et quatre dans les Alpes européennes. Des degrés de fragmentation ont pu être estimés. Pour évaluer l'énergie de fragmentation, deux méthodes on été examinées : l'une est basée sur l'énergie de concassage et l'autre est basée sur l'énergie de sautage utilisée dans le domaine minier. Les résultats obtenus portent à croire qu'il y aurait une relation entre l'indice de réduction de taille (Rr = D50/d50) et l'énergie potentielle par unité de volume, normalisée par la résistance au double poinçonnement (?HG/?c). Les énergies de fragmentation calculées pour les neuf cas étudiés donne en moyenne 20 % de l'énergie potentielle. Une relation empirique entre Rr et ?HG/?c est proposée, et est par la suite utilisée pour définir un indice de désintégration (ID). Cet indice reflète la physique du processus de désintégration puisqu'il considère que l'indice de réduction de taille est fonction de l'énergie dissipée et de la résistance de la roche. Ces facteurs connus depuis longtemps n'avaient jamais été présentés d'une façon cohérente pour des cas d'avalanches rocheuses.Mots clés : avalanches rocheuses, désintégration, énergie de fragmentation, Rocheuses canadiennes, Alpes européennes.

Experiments on substratum roughness, grainsize and volume influence on the motion and spreading of rock avalanches

The main objective of the research is to link granular physics with the modelling of rock avalanches. Laboratory experiments consist to find a convenient granular material, i.e. grainsize and physical behaviour, and testing it on simple slope geometry. When the appropriate sliding material is selected, we attempted to model the debris avalanche and the spreading on a slope with different substratum to understand the relationship between the volume and the reach angle, i.e. angle of the line joining the top of the scar and the end of the deposit. For a better understanding of the mass spreading, the deposits are scanned with a laser scanner. Datasets are compared to see how the grain size and volume influence a debris avalanche. The relationship between the roughness and grainsize of the substratum shows that the spreading of the sliding mass is increased when the roughness of the substratum starts to be equivalent or greater than the grainsize of the flowing mass. The runout distance displays a more complex relationship, because a long runout distance implies that grains are less spread. This means that if the substratum is too rough the distance diminishes, as well if it is too smooth because the effect on the apparent friction decreases. Up to now our findings do not permit to validate any previous model (Melosh, 1987; Bagnold 1956).

Los Mapas de riesgo de inundaciones: representación de la vulnerabilidad y aportación de las innovaciones tecnológicas

Los mapas de riesgo de inundaciones deberían mostrar las inundaciones en relación con los impactos potenciales que éstas pueden llegar a producir en personas, bienes y actividades. Por ello, es preciso añadir el concepto de vulnerabilidad al mero estudio del fenómeno físico. Así pues, los mapas de riesgo de daños por inundación son los verdaderos mapas de riesgo, ya que se elaboran, por una parte, a partir de cartografía que localiza y caracteriza el fenómeno físico de las inundaciones, y, por la otra, a partir de cartografía que localiza y caracteriza los elementos expuestos. El uso de las llamadas «nuevas tecnologías», como los SIG, la percepción remota, los sensores hidrológicos o Internet, representa un potencial de gran valor para el desarrollo de los mapas de riesgo de inundaciones, que es, hoy por hoy, un campo abierto a la investigación

Ecología del paisaje y sistemas de información geográfica ante el cambio socioambiental en las áreas de la montaña mediterránea. Una aproximación metodológica al caso de los valles d'Hortmoier y Sant Aniol

Este artículo es una aproximación a los métodos utilizados para analizar, cuantificar y valorar los cambios en los usos y cubiertas del suelo en estos dos valles que forman parte del espacio natural protegido de la Alta Garrotxa. La dinámica vivida en este territorio es un claro ejemplo de los procesos acaecidos a lo largo del siglo XX en buena parte de las áreas de montaña mediterránea. Una dinámica caracterizada fundamentalmentepor un incremento de la superficie forestal en detrimento del espacio agrario. Así mismo se proponen pautas metodológicas para su adecuada cartografía, así como para determinar las áreas potencialmente recuperables de espacio agrario con el objetivo de mantener la diversidad paisajística, biológica y el patrimonio cultural con la ayuda de los SIG y la Ecología del Paisaje

Participació de les aigües subterrànies en la gènesi d'ambients palustres continentals: el cas dels prats de Sant Sebastià (Caldes de Malavella, Girona)

The area known as 'prats de Sant Sebastià' is in Caldes de Malavella. It is part of the wetlands located in the south-eastern end of the Selva Basin. Several areas with unusually high conductivity (EC up to 24,500 uS/cm) have been identified in this place. This fact allows highly specialised and comparatively rare botanical species to grow in this area. These saline soils follow a north-south line-up. The geophysical data, obtained with a field conductivemeter (EM 31), show that this superficial line-up continues in the subsoil. In addition to this, the conductivity cartography, made for an electromagnetic exploration depth of 6 meters, shows that the width of the region where these salinity anomalies take place increases in depth. When included in the hidrogeological context of this sector of the Selva Basin, these data bring new elements for the study of the genesis and working of these marshy environments.The model that future research will have to confirm, maintains that the groundwater discharges coming from the underlying hydrogeothermal aquifer are a conditioning factor of the aforementioned phenomenon. This ascending flow of highly mineralised waters (TDS of about 3,500 mg/l) can produce and keep stable the soil salinity

La relació entre el valor N30 de L'SPT i la resistència a la compressió simple

The unconfined compression strength is a geotechnical parameter frequently used to determine the bearing capacity of foundations on clayey soils. Its value can be obtained from the unconfined compression test and, among several in situ tests, the standard penetration test (SPT). However, a comparison between the values of such a strength determined by both tests in CL, CL-ML and CH soils shows that it does not exist an approximate relationship. In any case it is remarkable that values of the test conducted in the laboratory fit between the lower and the higher ones calculated from the standard penetration number. This is very important for those geotechnical reports in which the unconfined compression strength is only based on the SPT. In this way, if the lower value is taken to evaluate the ultimate soilbearing capacity the result will not be very accurate but it will probably be by the side of safety

Indústria, mineria i artesania en toponímia rural: el cas del municipi d’Osor (la Selva)

The study presented is interdisciplinary names: the presence of place names related with industrial, artisanal or mining activities in rural areas. The main hypothesis refers to this fact; the uniqueness of industrial, mining or craft in a rural area is an important reason to influence their names, a fact that gives archaeological value, remembering economic activities now disappeared. The methodology used for the study has been usually applied in onomastic studies: compilation of names from field work, oral interviews, archival work, revision of ancient documents and revision of works and studies related to the cartography of Osor. The final conclusion is that, as proposed in the hypothesis, in a rural area as the studied, the low presence of industrial, artisanal or mining activities have generated place names that have helped in keeping the memory of economic activities now disappeared

Características geológicas y geotécnicas de los lodos de flotación de la Sierra Minera de Cartagena-La Unión (SE España)

We present the results of a geological and geotechnical characterization of the metallurgic waste from the Sierra Minera de Cartagena-La Union. We have studied eight tailings dams from which we collected and analysed 42 samples of metallurgic waste. We measured grainsize distribution, the specific gravity of solid particles, plasticity index, permeability, both in situ and in the laboratory, direct shear characteristicsand moisture content. According to size distribution the tailings can be classified as sandy silt. Their plasticity index ranges from medium to nil. The internal friction angle varies between 28 and 42 degrees. Cohesion is between 0 and 2.2 t/m2. The specific gravity of the solid particles ranges widely from 1.8 to 4 g/cm3. The saturated hydraulic conductivity values vary between 1.3x 10-5 and 3.2x 10-9 m/s.The water content measured in situ shows that the degree of saturation remains relatively high despite low rainfall and high evaporation rates. Several tailings dams have failed. The leading causes of tailings-dam failure are: 1) slope instability; 2) overflow; 3) erosion; and 4) subsidence or collapse. The main factor leading to dam failure is that the tailings stored in the ponds are highly saturated

Evolució de la vegetació de l’antic estany de Sils (la Selva) en els darrers 50 anys

The historical evolution of vegetation in the former Sils Pond (la Selva) during the second half of the 20th century is described through the study of past(Bolòs, 1954; Vilar, 1981) and present-day (Mercadal, 2002) vegetation cartography, the first aerial photographs (1956 and 1980) and current orthophotos (2000). This inland pool was finally drained in 1851 and most of its area was converted into meadows (Gaudinio fragilis-Arrhenatheretum elatioris Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl., Roussine & Nègre 1952), a semi cultural community which was very distinct florally, for the Mediterranean region. The results demonstrate that in the last 50 years changes in land use have transformed the former landscape, which was prominently meadow-like and grain-producing, into woodlands, wet grasslands, developed areas and sub-Mediterranean forests, with the consequent loss of meadow areas and floristic diversity. In response, based on historical cartography, we propose spaces to prioritize for recovery and management such as meadow areas

Les captacions d'aigua destinada al consum humà al Principat d'Andorra: Anàlisi del marc jurídic actual, definició del procediment d'autorització i sistema d'informació geogràfic sobre les captacions i els perímetres de protecció associats

RESUM L’aigua és un recurs limitat necessari per a l’establiment de qualsevol forma de vida sobre la Terra. Aquest recurs, es veu regit pel cicle hidrològic i durant les diferents fases del seu cicle, l’aigua pot ser captada per ser aprofitada per l’ésser humà. En els darrers anys, la necessitat d’aigua per a la població ha estat incrementada provocant un impacte negatiu sobre aquest recurs. Per aquest motiu sorgeix la necessitat de crear polítiques globals per protegir l’aigua que vagin encaminades a minimitzar l’efecte negatiu provocat per l’home. Tota captació d’aigua destinada al consum humà ha de garantir uns paràmetres de qualitat i per tal de poder aconseguir aquest objectiu amb eficàcia és imprescindible l’aplicació d’una eina legal molt important: els perímetres de protecció. A l’article 6 de la Llei de policia i protecció de les aigües del 31 de juliol del 1985, s’estableix que tota captació d’aigua potable haurà de quedar aïllada mitjançant un perímetre de protecció, a l’interior del qual no podrà dur-se a terme cap activitat sense prèvia autorització de Govern. Els objectius principals d’aquest estudi son recopilar la informació existent en referència a les captacions d’aigua i els seus respectius perímetres de protecció, elaborar una base de dades que pugui contenir tota la informació existent i elaborar cartografia especifica amb la finalitat de realitzar una diagnosi de la situació actual de les captacions i perímetres associats i identificar els principals riscos potencials existents en aquestes àrees. Entre les conclusions mes rellevants obtingudes amb aquest treball, cal destacar que s’ha constatat que algunes activitats antròpiques potencialment contaminants es troben situades en zones properes a les captacions destinades a consum humà, inclòs dins dels seus perímetres de protecció, amb el conseqüent risc que aquesta situació comporta.

Automatic Mapping and Classification of Spatial Environmental Data

The paper deals with the development and application of the generic methodology for automatic processing (mapping and classification) of environmental data. General Regression Neural Network (GRNN) is considered in detail and is proposed as an efficient tool to solve the problem of spatial data mapping (regression). The Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN) is considered as an automatic tool for spatial classifications. The automatic tuning of isotropic and anisotropic GRNN/PNN models using cross-validation procedure is presented. Results are compared with the k-Nearest-Neighbours (k-NN) interpolation algorithm using independent validation data set. Real case studies are based on decision-oriented mapping and classification of radioactively contaminated territories.

Comparison between detailed digital and conventional soil maps of an area with complex geology

Since different pedologists will draw different soil maps of a same area, it is important to compare the differences between mapping by specialists and mapping techniques, as for example currently intensively discussed Digital Soil Mapping. Four detailed soil maps (scale 1:10.000) of a 182-ha sugarcane farm in the county of Rafard, São Paulo State, Brazil, were compared. The area has a large variation of soil formation factors. The maps were drawn independently by four soil scientists and compared with a fifth map obtained by a digital soil mapping technique. All pedologists were given the same set of information. As many field expeditions and soil pits as required by each surveyor were provided to define the mapping units (MUs). For the Digital Soil Map (DSM), spectral data were extracted from Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery as well as six terrain attributes from the topographic map of the area. These data were summarized by principal component analysis to generate the map designs of groups through Fuzzy K-means clustering. Field observations were made to identify the soils in the MUs and classify them according to the Brazilian Soil Classification System (BSCS). To compare the conventional and digital (DSM) soil maps, they were crossed pairwise to generate confusion matrices that were mapped. The categorical analysis at each classification level of the BSCS showed that the agreement between the maps decreased towards the lower levels of classification and the great influence of the surveyor on both the mapping and definition of MUs in the soil map. The average correspondence between the conventional and DSM maps was similar. Therefore, the method used to obtain the DSM yielded similar results to those obtained by the conventional technique, while providing additional information about the landscape of each soil, useful for applications in future surveys of similar areas.

Notes sobre subjectivitat i experiència

The aim of this paper is to underline the fact that, in most contemporary philosophical debates (and somehow, issues in feminist theory are not an exception), a well-known term is playing an important role: experience. We need a cartography of the uses of experience, if we want to know what we are talking about and also if we intend to analyze and to rethink the last 25 years of ¿women studies¿, ¿gender studies¿ or ¿subaltern studies¿.