Resolución de "pequeños" conflictos en zonas de "grandes" conflictos. Una aproximación desde la antropología a las nociones endógenas de paz en Casamance (Senegal)

[ES] A menudo, las grandes instituciones internacionales aplican políticas de resolución de conflictos a gran escala sin fijarse en los sistemas y estrategias endógenos de las poblaciones implicadas. En este artículo intentaremos presentar algunos valores, prácticas e instituciones locales que intentan resolver conflictos de todo tipo a pequeña escala en la región de Casamance, donde se vive uno de los conflictos más duraderos del continente africano. Para ello, presentamos los diferentes grupos étnicos que habitan en Casamance y algunas de sus instituciones más características a la hora de mediar entre familias, pueblos o comunidades. Y finalmente invitamos a reflexionar sobre si estas estrategias endógenas podrían ser utilizadas de forma coordinada como contribución al proceso de paz en Casamance.

Politiche di sviluppo e questione etnica. La cooperazione italiana IN Bosnia Erzegovina

The globalization process of the last twenty years has changed the world through international flows of people, policies and practices. International cooperation to development is a part of that process and brought International Organizations (IOs) and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) from the West to the rest of the world. In my thesis I analyze the Italian NGOs that worked in Bosnia Herzegovina (BH) to understand which development projects they realized and how they faced the ethnic issue that characterized BH. I consider the relation shaped between Italian NGOs and Bosnian civil society as an object of ethnic interests. In BH, once part of former Yugoslavia, the transition from the communist regime to a democratic country has not been completed. BH’s social conditions are characterized by strong ethnic divisions. The legacy of the early 1990s crisis was a phenomenon of ethnic identities created before the war and that still endure today. The Dayton Peace Agreement signed in 1995 granted the peace and reinforced the inter-ethnic hate between the newly recognized three principal ethnicities: Serbs, Croats and Bosniak. Through the new constitution, the institutions were characterized by division at every level, from the top to the bottom of society. Besides it was the first constitution ever written and signed outside the own country; that was the root of the state of exception that characterized BH. Thus ethnic identities culture survived through the international political involvement. At the same time ethnic groups that dominated the political debate clashed with the international organization’s democratic purpose to build a multicultural and democratic state. Ethnic and also religious differences were the instruments for a national statement that might cause the transition and development projects failure. Fifteen years later social fragmentation was still present and it established an atmosphere of daily cultural violence. Civil society suffered this condition and attended to recreate the ethnic fragmentation in every day life. Some cities became physically divided and other cities don’t tolerated the minority presence. In rural areas, the division was more explicit, from village to village, without integration. In my speech, the anthropology for development – the derivative study from applied anthropology – constitutes the point of view that I used to understand how ethnic identities still influenced the development process in BH. I done ethnographic research about the Italian cooperation for development projects that were working there in 2007. The target of research were the Italian NGOs that created a relation with Bosnian civil society; they were almost twenty divided in four main field of competences: institutional building, education, agriculture and democratization. I assumed that NGOs work needed a deep study because the bottom of society is the place where people could really change their representation and behavior. Italian NGOs operated in BH with the aim of creating sustainable development. They found cultural barricade that both institutions and civil society erected when development projects have been applied. Ethnic and religious differences were stressed to maintain boundaries and fragmented power. Thus NGOs tried to negotiate development projects by social integration. I found that NGOs worked among ethnic groups by pursuing a new integration. They often gained success among people; civil society was ready to accept development projects and overcome differences. On the other hand NGOs have been limited by political level that sustained the ethnic talk and by their representation of Bosnian issue. Thus development policies have been impeded by ethnic issue and by cooperation practices established on a top down perspective. Paradoxically, since international community has approved the political ethnic division within DPA, then the willing of development followed by funding NGOs cooperation projects was not completely successful.

Hexerei und Ethnizität: das Beispiel der Jãana und ihrer Nachbarn in Burkina Faso /// Arbeitspapiere / Institut für Ethnologie und Afrikastudien ; 66

Um den Zusammenhang zwischen Hexerei und Ethnizität zu verdeutlichen, werden in diesem Artikel verschiedene theoretischer Ansätze zu Hexerei am Beispiel der Jãana und ihrer Nachbarn im Südwesten von Burkina Faso diskutiert. Dadurch werden sowohl die Parallelen – insbesondere zur Arbeit von Peter Geschiere – als auch die Besonderheiten zu anderen Studien deutlich. Der von mir verfolgte multiethnische Ansatz zeigt, dass Hexerei nicht nur innerhalb einer ethnischen Gruppe für das Zusammenleben relevant ist, sondern auch über ethnische Grenzen hinweg. Die Berücksichtigung der Selbst- und Fremdwahrnehmungen sowie der Interaktion zwischen Angehörigen verschiedener Ethnien (Jãana, Phuo und Lobi) schuf die Voraussetzung, ein differenziertes Bild von Hexerei und Ethnizität im bäuerlichen Alltag zu erhalten. Eine wichtige Erkenntnis ist dabei, dass manche Akteure ihr Hexer-Image bzw. die ihnen zugeschriebene okkulten Kräfte nicht nur als Mittel im Machtkampf mit anderen benutzen, sondern auch als Teil ihrer ethnischen Identität und Andersartigkeit ansehen.

Studi sull'epigramma scoptico greco

The dissertation is divided into two parts: the first synthesis focused on the definition of the epigram scoptico imperial age, the second analysis concerns the study of the minor poets of Book XI. In the Introduction (I), the attention focuses on the genesis of imperial scoptic epigram: here you try to draw a picture of the satirical Greek literature before the middle of the century AD to identify the debts of the scoptic epigram, especially Lucillius’, in respect of previous authors (from the Middle-up comedy to epigrams of the Crown of Philip), and to emphasize the remoteness of this literary phenomenon from other experiences of ironic and satirical poetry (Catullus). In the chapter on the Themes (II), the study was limited to professional groups and those most targeted (doctors, grammarians, etc..), to that particular type represented by the satire on ethnic groups. The study of minor poets is necessarily preceded by a general discussion on the authors most representative of the greek satiric poetry: Lucillius, Ammianus, Nicarchus and Palladas (III). All the minor poets of the eleventh book, which you can not provide a date, have been regarded by scholars as the ‘poets of Diogenian’: the chapter on Anthologion of Diogenian (IV), which is undergoing critical to the existence (assumed but never proven) of the lost source of Book XI, therefore, serves as an introduction to the commentary of the authors required minors. During the discussion they are not qualified as poets ‘poets of Diogenian’, but are divided into two categories: those included in the string of alphabetically ordered AP XI 388-436 (V), and those who are not part of (VI). Finally, a separate chapter (VII) is devoted to the age-old question of epigrams assigned to Lucian, both in the string of alphabetically ordered epigrams, as well as outside it.

Pastoral Livelihoods in South Ethiopia - Value Chain Assessment of Gum & Resins in Moyale Area

This research assessed the value chain of gum and resins, which are available in four woreda in the southern lowlands of Ethiopia. They are Moyale Somali, Moyale Oromia, Dhas and Dire woreda. The output of this research is the elaboration of three value chains. The first is a general one for all the woreda, while the other two concern the Moyale and Dubluk markets. The assessed products are the gum arabic from Acacia trees and the resin exuded by the dunkhal tree - Boswellia family. The aim of this study was not only to understand the way in which resins and gum gain value through the chain and the profit each stakeholder gains, but more importantly how pastoralists use resin and gum collection to diversify their income. The first chapter analyses what it means to be a pastoralist in the Moyale area and its challenges. The second chapter describes how the policies of the central state influenced the pastoral access to rangelands and water and the way in which this contributed to the increase of conflict among the different groups. A particular focus is on the settlement. The third chapter describes the different ethnic groups living in the studied area and their management system to preserve resources and cope with the dry season. This chapter considers the dynamic evolution of the relations among the various groups in terms of negotiating access to resources while facing political and climatic challenges. The fourth chapter illustrates the physical context and the environment, and the way in which it has been managed in order to preserve the pastoral lifestyle. The fifth chapter describes the characteristics of gum and resins in the studied area. Finally, the sixth chapter describes how the value chain methodology was applied in this specific study and its outputs.

Essays on the Empirical Analysis of Economic and Political Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

In Sub-Saharan Africa, non-democratic events, like civil wars and coup d'etat, destroy economic development. This study investigates both domestic and spatial effects on the likelihood of civil wars and coup d'etat. To civil wars, an increase of income growth is one of common research conclusions to stop wars. This study adds a concern on ethnic fractionalization. IV-2SLS is applied to overcome causality problem. The findings document that income growth is significant to reduce number and degree of violence in high ethnic fractionalized countries, otherwise they are trade-off. Income growth reduces amount of wars, but increases its violent level, in the countries with few large ethnic groups. Promoting growth should consider ethnic composition. This study also investigates the clustering and contagion of civil wars using spatial panel data models. Onset, incidence and end of civil conflicts spread across the network of neighboring countries while peace, the end of conflicts, diffuse only with the nearest neighbor. There is an evidence of indirect links from neighboring income growth, without too much inequality, to reduce the likelihood of civil wars. To coup d'etat, this study revisits its diffusion for both all types of coups and only successful ones. The results find an existence of both domestic and spatial determinants in different periods. Domestic income growth plays major role to reduce the likelihood of coup before cold war ends, while spatial effects do negative afterward. Results on probability to succeed coup are similar. After cold war ends, international organisations seriously promote democracy with pressure against coup d'etat, and it seems to be effective. In sum, this study indicates the role of domestic ethnic fractionalization and the spread of neighboring effects to the likelihood of non-democratic events in a country. Policy implementation should concern these factors.

I manufatti egizi ed egittizzanti in Sicilia

Il progetto di ricerca si è posto l'obiettivo di analizzare una serie di manufatti egizî e di tradizione egizia della Sicilia preromana e di evidenziare le eventuali sopravvivenze della cultura egittizzante sull’isola fino all'età tardoantica. La realizzazione di un corpus, aggiornato sulla scorta di nuovi rinvenimenti, di recenti riletture e di studi su materiali inediti custoditi nei musei siciliani, ha contribuito a tracciare una mappa distributiva delle aree di rinvenimento e di attestazione, con particolare riferimento alle diverse etnie che recepiscono tali prodotti e alla possibilità di ricostruire l’ambientazione storica della domanda diretta o indiretta. Si è scelto di privilegiare lo studio tipologico, iconografico e iconologico di alcune “categorie” di materiali maggiormente documentati sull’isola, quali amuleti, scarabei e scaraboidi, cretule, ushabti, gioielli, bronzi figurati, gemme, con l’individuazione di riscontri in ambito mediterraneo. La documentazione delle testimonianze antiquarie contenenti notizie su reperti oggi non più reperibili ha permesso, infine, non solo l’acquisizione d’informazioni spesso ritenute perse, ma anche una comprensione storicizzata delle dinamiche del collezionismo siciliano e del suo ruolo nel più vasto ambito europeo dal XVII al XIX secolo. È stato importante, infatti, chiarire anche alcuni aspetti della cultura egittologica del periodo, legata in genere alla circolazione di stereotipi e alla mancanza di una conoscenza diretta della realtà faraonica.

Sense of Community in contexts of multi culture

The theme “Belongingness” has a central role in the current debate on Community Psychology and in daily life. To try to understand the consequences of these changes, the research focuses on the concept of Sense of Community. In fact, Sense of Community has always been a central tool (Sarason, 1974; MacMillan & Chavis, 1986) to study communities (McMillan, 2011; Nowell & Boyd, 2011) and for a long time has represented positive values and something to aspire to. However, current debates indicate that Sense of Community is an outmoded concept and underline the problematic issue of “promotion of Sense of Community” in contexts of multi culture. The aim of the present research is to analyze Sense of Community in context of multi culture, as we consider that it can still be a fundamental tool to study and understand communities. In particular we are interested in understanding the role of Multiple Sense of Community (Brodsky, 2009) on Identity and Wellbeing (and its dimensions). We focused on a specific context, the Station Zone in Reggio Emilia, that is characterized by high levels of cultural diversity and different social problems (Giovannini & Vezzali, 2011). The research is developed and divided into two parts. The first part consists of an exploratory qualitative study that analyzes meanings of community among leaders of different ethnic groups living in the Station Zone. The second part consists of a “General Model” study and four parallel studies to analyze Multiple Sense of Community in different ethnic groups (Albanians, Moroccans, Chinese and Italians. The results indicate the different role of Multiple SOC in the relation between Identity and Wellbeing, in particular the relevance of Relational SOC and its different implications. Moreover, the factor “culture” represents an significant element in order to consider differences among ethnic groups.

Evolutionary genetics of lactase persistence in Eurasian human populations

Although ability to digest lactose generally declines after weaning in all mammals, in some human populations it persists also in adult individuals, a condition named lactase persistence (LP). Studies on the prevalence of the LP phenotype in worldwide human populations have shown that the frequency of this trait is highly variable in different ethnic groups, appearing to be positively correlated with the importance of milk in the diet. In particular, several single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the proximity of the LCT gene have been proved to be associated with LP. Nevertheless, few studies have till now analyzed genetic variation underlying LP in a wide set of Eurasian populations and, especially, in the Italian one. In the present study, we thus typed 40 SNPs surrounding the LCT gene in more than 1,000 samples from Italian and Arabic peninsulas to investigate patterns of LP-related genetic diversity in two regions which have played a pivotal role in the recent human evolutionary history according to their geographical position and historical/archaeological records. Our results underline a high and complex variability of the explored genomic region in both studied populations. In particular, a clear diversification of Northern Italian groups from the rest of the peninsula, was observed, with the formers being genetically more similar to Northern European populations than to Southern Italians. These observation are consistent with known decreasing pattern of LP from Northern to Southern Italy and suggest the possibility of an independent evolution of LP-associated genotypes in Northern Italy. A similar scenario was observed in the Arabian peninsula, with Dhofari Arabs from Southern Oman and Yemeni clustering together with respect to Arabs from Northern Oman and the subgroup of Omanis of Asian origin which appeared instead to be genetically closer to Europeans than to the rest of Arabic groups.

"Unser Volk ist vereint, unser Land unabhängig" - zum Umgang mit nationalen Identitätsmodellen im postsowjetischen Kasachstan

Für alle fünf zentralasiatischen Teilrepubliken kam der Zusammenbruch der Sowjetunion im Jahr 1991 relativ plötzlich und eher unerwartet. Der Prozess der „Transformation“ beinhaltete für die neu entstandenen Staaten nun nicht nur die Umstellung politischer und wirtschaftlicher Systeme, sondern ebenso die Organisation von Erinnerung und die Konstruktion von Identität, bei der die staatliche Nationalisierungspolitik oft Paradebeispiele von invented traditions her-vorbrachte. rnIn Kasachstan, dem Land, das während der Sowjetzeit am stärksten russifiziert wurde und heute offiziell 120 Minderheiten zählt, stellt sich dabei die Frage, wie nationale Identitätsmus-ter konstruiert werden und wie Politik. Medien und Bevölkerung damit umgehen. Zwanzig Jahre nach der Unabhängigkeitserklärung des Landes und einer Phase, in der die Regierung mit einer Vielzahl von Maßnahmen versucht, den Identitätsfindungsprozess zu steuern, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals eine empirische Studie zu der Frage durchgeführt, welche Bedeutungen bestimmte Identitätskonzepte für die lokale Bevölkerung haben. Während meh-rerer Forschungsaufenthalte von insgesamt vier Monaten in den Jahren 2010 und 2011 wurden in Hinblick auf die Fragestellung leitfadenorientierte Interviews und informelle Gespräche mit Teilen der kasachstanischen Bevölkerung geführt, teilnehmende Beobachtung, zwei Fragebo-genaktionen und eine Zeitungsanalyse durchgeführt sowie wissenschaftliche Studien und poli-tische Dokumente analysiert.rnDie Arbeit kommt zu dem Ergebnis, dass die Mehrheit der Befragten sich mehr oder weniger stark entweder über die Staatsbürgerschaft oder die ethnische Zugehörigkeit zur Titularnation mit dem Staat identifiziert. Auffällig ist die Bedeutung regionaler Identitäten für die Befrag-ten, die weder in der nationalen Identitätspolitik noch in der wissenschaftlichen Literatur von Wichtigkeit sind. Ethnische und religiöse Nivellierungen scheinen im Alltagsleben belanglos zu sein, aber in bestimmten anderen Kontexten eine entscheidende Rolle zu spielen. Starke Unterschiede in der Bedeutung verschiedener Identitätsmodelle lassen sich zwischen Stadt- und Landbevölkerung beziehungsweise zwischen sowjetisierten und nach der Wende repatri-ierten Kasachen ausmachen.rnEs ist anzunehmen, dass die Regierung der entscheidende Agent in der Identitätsfindung des Landes ist. Unter den Befragten zeigte sich, dass Identitätspolitik auf der pragmatischen Ebe-ne, beispielsweise in der Anerkennung von Russisch und Kasachisch als Staatssprachen, er-folgreicher ist als auf der emotionalen. rn

Acknowledging linguistic diversity in a multicultural society: the issue of indigenous languages in Colombia.

Nowadays, modern society is gradually becoming multicultural. However, only in the last few years awareness on its importance has been raised. In the case of Colombia, multiculturalism has existed since the pre-Columbian period and today there are more than 80 ethnic groups and 65 indigenous languages in the country. The aim of this work is to illustrate the status of indigenous languages in Colombia and to enlighten about the importance of recognizing, protecting and strengthening the use of these native languages. Subsequent to this, it will be point out that linguistic diversity should be considered a resource and not a barrier to achieve unity in diversity. Finally, ethno-education will be presented as an adequate educational program that may guarantee an equal linguistic representation in the country.

Association between variants of the leptin receptor gene (LEPR) and overweight: a systematic review and an analysis of the CoLaus study

Background Three non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (Q223R, K109R and K656N) of the leptin receptor gene (LEPR) have been tested for association with obesity-related outcomes in multiple studies, showing inconclusive results. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis on the association of the three LEPR variants with BMI. In addition, we analysed 15 SNPs within the LEPR gene in the CoLaus study, assessing the interaction of the variants with sex. Methodology/Principal Findings We searched electronic databases, including population-based studies that investigated the association between LEPR variants Q223R, K109R and K656N and obesity- related phenotypes in healthy, unrelated subjects. We furthermore performed meta-analyses of the genotype and allele frequencies in case-control studies. Results were stratified by SNP and by potential effect modifiers. CoLaus data were analysed by logistic and linear regressions and tested for interaction with sex. The meta-analysis of published data did not show an overall association between any of the tested LEPR variants and overweight. However, the choice of a BMI cut-off value to distinguish cases from controls was crucial to explain heterogeneity in Q223R. Differences in allele frequencies across ethnic groups are compatible with natural selection of derived alleles in Q223R and K109R and of the ancient allele in K656N in Asians. In CoLaus, the rs10128072, rs3790438 and rs3790437 variants showed interaction with sex for their association with overweight, waist circumference and fat mass in linear regressions. Conclusions Our systematic review and analysis of primary data from the CoLaus study did not show an overall association between LEPR SNPs and overweight. Most studies were underpowered to detect small effect sizes. A potential effect modification by sex, population stratification, as well as the role of natural selection should be addressed in future genetic association studies.

Interethnic Interaction Dynamics in the Russian Federation

The collapse of the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1990s also meant the end of the idea of a common soviet identity incarnated in the "soviet man" and the new "historic community of the soviet people". While this idea still lives on in the generations of the 1920s to 1940s, the younger generations tend to prefer identification with family, profession, ethnic group or religion. Ms. Alexakhina set out to investigate different interethnic interaction strategies in the multi-ethnic context of the Russian Federation, with an emphasis on analysing the role of cultural and ethno-demographic characteristics of minority ethnic groups. It aimed to identify those specific patterns of interaction dynamics that have emerged in response to the political and economic transformation at present under way. The basic supposition was that the size and growth of an ethnic population are defined not only by demographic features such as fertility, mortality and net migration, but are also dependent on processes interethnic interaction and ethnic transition. The central hypothesis of the project was that the multi-ethnic and multi-cultural composition of Russia is apparently manifesting itself in the ethnic minority groups in various forms, but particularly in the form of ethnic revival and/or assimilation. The results of these complex phenomena are manifested as changes in ethnic attachments (national re-identification and language behaviour (multi-lingualism, language transition and loss of the mother tongue). The stress of the political and economic crisis has stimulated significant changes in ethnographic, social and cultural characteristics of inter-ethnic dynamics such as the rate of national re-identification, language behaviour, migration activity and the spread of mixed marriages, among both those minorities with a long history of settlement in Russia and those that were annexed during the soviet period. Patterns of language behaviour and the spread of mixed marriages were taken as the main indicators of the directions of interethnic interaction described as assimilation, ethnic revival and cultural pluralism. The first stage of the research involved a statistical analysis of census data from 1959 to 1994 in order to analyse the changing demographic composition of the largest ethnic groups of the Russian Federation. Until 1989 interethnic interaction in soviet society was distinguished by the process of russification but the political and economic transformation has stimulated the process of ethnic revival, leading to an apparent fall in the size of the Russian population due to ethnic re-identification by members of other ethnic groups who had previously identified themselves as Russian. Cross-classification of nationalities by demographic, social and cultural indicators has shown that the most important determinants of the nature of interethnic interaction are cultural factors such as religion and language affiliation. The analysis of the dynamics of language shift through the study of bilingualism and the domains of language usage for different demographic groups revealed a strong correlation between recognition of Russian as a mother tongue among some non-Russian ethnic groups and the declining size of these groups. The main conclusion from this macro-analysis of census data was the hypothesis of the growing importance of social and political factors upon ethnic succession, that ethnic identity is no longer a stable characteristic but has become dynamic in nature. In order to verify this hypothesis Ms. Alexakhina conducted a survey in four regions showing different patterns of interethnic interaction: the Karelian Republic, Buryatiya, the Nenezkii Autonomous Region and Tatarstan. These represented the west, east, north and south of the Russian Federation. Samples for the survey were prepared on the basis of census lists so as to exclude mono-Russian families in favour of mixed and ethnic-minority families. The survey confirmed the significant growth in the importance of ethnic affiliation in the everyday lives of people in the Federation following the de-centralisation of the political and economic spheres. Language was shown to be a key symbol of the consciousness of national distinction, confirmed by the fact that the process of russification has been reversed by the active mastering of the languages of titular nationalities. The results also confirmed that individual ethnic identity has ceased to be a fixed personal characteristic of one's cultural and genetic belonging, and people's social adaptation to the current political, social and economic conditions is also demonstrated in changes in individual ethnic self-identification. In general terms, the dynamic nature of national identity means that ethnic identity is at present acquiring the special features of overall social identity, for which the frequent change of priorities is an inherent feature of a person's life cycle. These are mainly linked with a multi-ethnic environment and high individual social mobility. From her results Ms. Alexakhina concludes that the development of national languages and multi-lingualism, together with the preservation of Russian as a state language, seems to be the most promising path to peaceful coexistence and the development of the national cultures of different ethnic groups within the Russian Federation.

Trends in Migrations of Refugees in Serbia

This project aimed to establish a comprehensive long-term projection of refugee migration trends in Serbia which would allow the different organisations engaged in caring for refugees to plan their work more effectively. Mr. Cvetkovic studied first the official records of numbers and origins of refugees and the various definitions used to describe refugees, exiled persons, etc., considering also the indication of nationality, i.e. Serb or Yugoslav, and the future intentions expressed by refugees. He concluded that more than three quarters of the total number of refugees in Serbia wish to remain in Serbia/Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and only 20% wish to repatriate. He concludes that the situation in relation to the ethnic-national structure of Serbia is extremely complicated, even to the point of chaos. One certainty is that sooner or later a huge majority of the refugees in Serbia today will be granted full citizenship and will then participate in the choice of the political system and the dominant national values and institutions of the country. The experiences of the refugees, as well as of their fellow nationals in Serbia, make it relatively unlikely that they will make rational choices that could produce a balance between civil democracy and national totalitarianism. Insofar as overall political relations within Serbia and its Federation with Montenegro develop along democratic lines, the civic identity of Serbs (as opposed to their national/ethnic status) can be expected to become stronger, and the civil and national to become an integral part of thinking which does not represent a challenge to the democratic state. This would help ensure that the migratory movements of the Serbs and of other national and ethnic groups in the region are motivated by economic rather than political or ethnic reasons.

The Ingrian Question as a Historical and Political Phenomenon

The project dealt with the political history of the Finnish-speaking minorities of the Russian northwest, mainly in the 20th century. The first part looks at the development of the national movement of the Ingrian Finns and other related ethnic groups (Izhoras, Votes) from the turn of the century to 1920, when Estonia and Finland signed peace treaties with Soviet Russia and the national rights of the Finnish minority in Russia were to some extent guaranteed. In the second section, on the history of the Ingrians during Soviet and post-Soviet times, areas covered include Ingrian national-cultural autonomy in the 1920s, the activities of Ingrian "ingri" organizations in Finland during the inter-war period, social and national repression and the end of autonomy in the 1930s, the dispersal of the Ingrians during the second world war, their first attempts to return home in the immediate post-war period, trends in the development of the social and cultural life of Ingrians during the last 40 years, and the prospects for their existence as an ethnic unity in the future. The research is based on documentary sources from 15 Russian archives, many of which have not previously been used.