Spatial and temporal aspects of synaptic plasticity

The notion that changes in synaptic efficacy underlie learning and memory processes is now widely accepted even if definitive proof of the synaptic plasticity and memory hypothesis is still lacking. When learning occurs, patterns of neural activity representing the occurrence of events cause changes in the strength of synaptic connections within the brain. Reactivation of these altered connections constitutes the experience of memory for these events and for other events with which they may be associated. These statements summarize a long-standing theory of memory formation that we refer to as the synaptic plasticity and memory hypothesis. Since activity-dependent synaptic plasticity is induced at appropriate synapses during memory formation, and is both necessary and sufficient for the information storage, we can speculate that a methodological study of the synapse will help us understand the mechanism of learning. Random events underlie a wide range of biological processes as diverse as genetic drift and molecular diffusion, regulation of gene expression and neural network function. Additionally spatial variability may be important especially in systems with nonlinear behavior. Since synapse is a complex biological system we expect that stochasticity as well as spatial gradients of different enzymes may be significant for induction of plasticity. ^ In that study we address the question "how important spatial and temporal aspects of synaptic plasticity may be". We developed methods to justify our basic assumptions and examined the main sources of variability of calcium dynamics. Among them, a physiological method to estimate the number of postsynaptic receptors as well as a hybrid algorithm for simulating postsynaptic calcium dynamics. Additionally we studied how synaptic geometry may enhance any possible spatial gradient of calcium dynamics and how that spatial variability affect plasticity curves. Finally, we explored the potential of structural synaptic plasticity to provide a metaplasticity mechanism specific for the synapse. ^

Efectos de una intervención nutricional personalizada a largo plazo sobre los hábitos alimentarios de jugadores profesionales de baloncesto y su influencia en la percepción del esfuerzo y la fatiga

El presente trabajo consistió en el desarrollo de una intervención nutricional a largo plazo llevada a cabo con jugadores profesionales de baloncesto, en función al cumplimiento de las recomendaciones nutricionales, con los siguientes dos objetivos: 1) valorar los cambios que dicha intervención produce sobre las prácticas nutricionales diarias de estos deportistas y 2) conocer la influencia de las modificaciones nutricionales producidas sobre la tasa de percepción del esfuerzo por sesión (RPE-Sesión) y la fatiga, a lo largo de una temporada competitiva, tanto para entrenamientos como partidos oficiales. Los objetivos del estudio se fundamentan en: 1) la numerosa evidencia científica que muestra la inadecuación de los hábitos nutricionales de los jugadores de baloncesto y otros deportistas respecto a las recomendaciones nutricionales; 2) el hecho ampliamente reconocido en la literatura especializada de que una ingesta nutricional óptima permite maximizar el rendimiento deportivo (a nivel físico y cognitivo), promoviendo una rápida recuperación y disminuyendo el riesgo de enfermedades y lesiones deportivas. No obstante, pocos estudios han llevado a cabo una intervención nutricional a largo plazo para mejorar los hábitos alimentarios de los deportistas y ninguno de ellos fue realizado con jugadores de baloncesto; 3) la elevada correlación entre la percepción del esfuerzo (RPE) y variables fisiológicas relacionadas al desarrollo de un ejercicio (por ej.: frecuencia cardíaca, consumo máximo de oxígeno o lactato sanguíneo) y los múltiples estudios que muestran la atenuación de la RPE durante la realización del ejercicio mediante una ingesta puntual de nutrientes, (especialmente de hidratos de carbono) aunque ninguno fue desarrollado en baloncesto; 4) el estudio incipiente de la relación entre la ingesta nutricional y la RPE-Sesión, siendo éste un método validado en baloncesto y otros deportes de equipo como indicador de la carga de trabajo interna, el rendimiento deportivo y la intensidad del ejercicio realizado; 5) el hecho de que la fatiga constituye uno de los principales factores influyentes en la percepción del esfuerzo y puede ser retrasada y/o atenuada mediante la ingesta de carbohidratos, pudiendo disminuir consecuentemente la RPE-Sesión y la carga interna del esfuerzo físico, potenciando el rendimiento deportivo y las adaptaciones inducidas por el entrenamiento; 6) la reducida evidencia acerca del comportamiento de la RPE-Sesión ante la modificación de la ingesta de nutrientes, encontrándose sólo un estudio llevado a cabo en baloncesto y 7) la ausencia de investigaciones acerca de la influencia que puede tener la mejora del patrón nutricional de los jugadores sobre la RPE-Sesión y la fatiga, desconociéndose si la adecuación de los hábitos nutricionales conduce a una disminución de estas variables en el largo plazo para todos los entrenamientos y partidos oficiales a nivel profesional. Por todo esto, este trabajo comienza con una introducción que presenta el marco teórico de la importancia y función de la nutrición en el deporte, así como de las recomendaciones nutricionales actuales a nivel general y para baloncesto. Además, se describen las intervenciones nutricionales llevadas a cabo previamente con otros deportistas y las consecuentes modificaciones sobre el patrón alimentario, coincidiendo este aspecto con el primer objetivo del presente estudio. Posteriormente, se analiza la RPE, la RPE-Sesión y la fatiga, focalizando el estudio en la relación de dichas variables con la carga de trabajo físico, la intensidad del entrenamiento, el rendimiento deportivo y la recuperación post ejercicio. Finalmente, se combinan todos los aspectos mencionados: ingesta nutricional, RPE percepción del esfuerzo y fatiga, con el fin de conocer la situación actual del estudio de la relación entre dichas variables, conformando la base del segundo objetivo de este estudio. Seguidamente, se exponen y fundamentan los objetivos antes mencionados, para dar lugar después a la explicación de la metodología utilizada en el presente estudio. Ésta consistió en un diseño de estudios de caso, aplicándose una intervención nutricional personalizada a tres jugadores de baloncesto profesional (cada jugador = un estudio de caso; n = 1), con el objetivo de adecuar su ingesta nutricional en el largo plazo a las recomendaciones nutricionales. A su vez, se analizó la respuesta individual de cada uno de los casos a dicha intervención para los dos objetivos del estudio. Para ello, cada jugador completó un registro diario de alimentos (7 días; pesada de alimentos) antes, durante y al final de la intervención. Además, los sujetos registraron diariamente a lo largo del estudio la RPE-Sesión y la fatiga en entrenamientos físicos y de balón y en partidos oficiales de liga, controlándose además en forma cuantitativa otras variables influyentes como el estado de ánimo y el sueño. El análisis de los datos consistió en el cálculo de los estadísticos descriptivos para todas las variables, la comparación de la ingesta en los diferentes momentos evaluados con las recomendaciones nutricionales y una comparación de medias no paramétrica entre el período pre intervención y durante la intervención con el test de Wilcoxon (medidas repetidas) para todas las variables. Finalmente, se relacionaron los cambios obtenidos en la ingesta nutricional con la percepción del esfuerzo y la fatiga y la posible influencia del estado de ánimo y el sueño, a través de un estudio correlacional (Tau_b de Kendall). Posteriormente, se presentan los resultados obtenidos y la discusión de los mismos, haciendo referencia a la evidencia científica relacionada que se encuentra publicada hasta el momento, la cual facilitó el análisis de la relación entre RPE-Sesión, fatiga y nutrición a lo largo de una temporada. Los principales hallazgos y su correspondiente análisis, por lo tanto, pueden resumirse en los siguientes: 1) los tres jugadores de baloncesto profesional presentaron inicialmente hábitos nutricionales inadecuados, haciendo evidente la necesidad de un nutricionista deportivo dentro del cuerpo técnico de los equipos profesionales; 2) las principales deficiencias correspondieron a un déficit pronunciado de energía e hidratos de carbono, que fueron reducidas con la intervención nutricional; 3) la ingesta excesiva de grasa total, ácidos grasos saturados, etanol y proteínas que se halló en alguno/s de los casos, también se adecuó a las recomendaciones después de la intervención; 4) la media obtenida durante un período de la temporada para la RPE-Sesión y la fatiga de entrenamientos, podría ser disminuida en un jugador individual mediante el incremento de su ingesta de carbohidratos a largo plazo, siempre que no existan alteraciones psico-emocionales relevantes; 5) el comportamiento de la RPE-Sesión de partidos oficiales no parece estar influido por los factores nutricionales modificados en este estudio, dependiendo más de la variación de elementos externos no controlables, intrínsecos a los partidos de baloncesto profesional. Ante estos resultados, se pudo observar que las diferentes características de los jugadores y las distintas respuestas obtenidas después de la intervención, reforzaron la importancia de utilizar un diseño de estudio de casos para el análisis de los deportistas de élite y, asimismo, de realizar un asesoramiento nutricional personalizado. Del mismo modo, la percepción del esfuerzo y la fatiga de cada jugador evolucionaron de manera diferente después de la intervención nutricional, lo cual podría depender de las diferentes características de los sujetos, a nivel físico, psico-social, emocional y contextual. Por ello, se propone que el control riguroso de las variables cualitativas que parecen influir sobre la RPE y la fatiga a largo plazo, facilitaría la comprensión de los datos y la determinación de factores desconocidos que influyen sobre estas variables. Finalmente, al ser la RPE-Sesión un indicador directo de la carga interna del entrenamiento, es decir, del estrés psico-fisiológico experimentado por el deportista, la posible atenuación de esta variable mediante la adecuación de los hábitos nutricionales, permitiría aplicar las cargas externas de entrenamiento planificadas, con menor estrés interno y mejor recuperación entre sesiones, disminuyendo también la sensación de fatiga, a pesar del avance de la temporada. ABSTRACT This study consisted in a long-term nutritional intervention carried out with professional basketball players according to nutritional recommendations, with the following two main objectives: 1) to evaluate the changes produced by the intervention on daily nutritional practices of these athletes and 2) to determine the influence of long term nutritional intake modifications on the rate of perceived exertion per session (Session-RPE) and fatigue, throughout a competitive season for training as well as competition games. These objectives are based on: 1) much scientific evidence that shows an inadequacy of the nutritional habits of basketball players and other athletes regarding nutritional recommendations; 2) the fact widely recognized in the scientific literature that an optimal nutrition allows to achieve the maximum performance of an athlete (both physically and cognitively), promoting fast recovery and decreasing risks of sports injuries and illnesses. However, only few studies carried out a long term nutritional intervention to improve nutritional practices of athletes and it could not be found any research with basketball players; 3) the high correlation between the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and physiological variables related to the performance of physical exercise (e.g.: heart rate, maximum consumption of oxygen or blood lactate) and multiple studies showing the attenuation of RPE during exercise due to the intake of certain nutrients (especially carbohydrates), while none of them was developed in basketball; 4) correlation between nutritional intake and Session-RPE has been recently studied for the first time. Session-RPE method has been validated in basketball players and other team sports as an indicator of internal workload, sports performance and exercise intensity; 5) fatigue is considered one of the main influential factor on RPE and sport performance. It has also been observed that carbohydrates intake may delay or mitigate the onset of fatigue and, thus, decrease the perceived exertion and the internal training load, which could improve sports performance and training-induced adaptations; 6) there are few studies evaluating the influence of nutrient intake on Session-RPE and only one of them has been carried out with basketball players. Moreover, it has not been analyzed the possible effects of the adequacy of players’ nutritional habits through a nutritional intervention on Session-RPE and fatigue, variables that could be decreased for all training session and competition games because of an improvement of daily nutritional intake. Therefore, this work begins with an introduction that provides the conceptual framework of this research focused on the key role of nutrition in sport, as well as on the current nutritional recommendations for athletes and specifically for basketball players. In addition, previous nutritional interventions carried out with other athletes are described, as well as consequential modifications on their food pattern, coinciding with the first objective of the present study. Subsequently, RPE, Session-RPE and fatigue are analyzed, with focus on their correlation with physical workload, training intensity, sports performance and recovery. Finally, all the aforementioned aspects (nutritional intake, RPE and fatigue) were combined in order to know the current status of the relation between each other, this being the base for the second objective of this study. Subsequently, the objectives mentioned above are explained, continuing with the explanation of the methodology used in the study. The methodology consisted of a case-study design, carrying out a long term nutritional intervention with three professional basketball players (each player = one case study; n = 1), in order to adapt their nutritional intake to nutritional recommendations. At the same time, the individual response of each player to the intervention was analyzed for the two main objectives of the study. Each player completed a food diary (7 days; weighing food) in three moments: before, during and at the end of the intervention. In addition, the Session-RPE and fatigue were daily recorded throughout the study for all trainings (training with ball and resistance training) and competition games. At the same time, other potentially influential variables such as mood state and sleeping were daily controlled throughout the study. Data analysis consisted in descriptive statistics calculation for all the variables of the study, the comparison between nutritional intake (evaluated at different times) and nutritional recommendations and a non-parametric mean comparison between pre intervention and during intervention periods was made by Wilcoxon test (repeated measurements) for all variables too. Finally, the changes in nutritional intake, mood state and sleeping were correlated with the perceived exertion and fatigue through correctional study (Tau_b de Kendall). After the methodology, the study results and the associated discussion are presented. The discussion is based on the current scientific evidence that contributes to understand the relation between Session-RPE, fatigue and nutrition throughout the competitive season. The main findings and results analysis can be summarized as follows: 1) the three professional basketball players initially had inadequate nutritional habits and this clearly shows the need of a sports nutritionist in the coaching staff of professional teams; (2) the major deficiencies of the three players’ diet corresponded to a pronounced deficit of energy intake and carbohydrates consumption which were reduced with nutritional intervention; (3) the excessive intake of total fat, saturated fatty acids, ethanol and protein found in some cases were also adapted to the recommendations after the intervention; (4) Session-RPE mean and fatigue of a certain period of the competition season, could be decreased in an individual player by increasing his carbohydrates intake in the long term, if there are no relevant psycho-emotional disorders; (5) the behavior of the Session-RPE in competition games does not seem to be influenced by the nutritional factors modified in this study. They seem to depend much more on the variation of external non-controllable factors associated with the professional basketball games. Given these results, the different characteristics of each player and the diverse responses observed after the intervention in each individual for all the variables, reinforced the importance of the use of a case study design for research with elite athletes as well as personalized nutritional counselling. In the same way, the different responses obtained for RPE and fatigue in the long term for each player due to modification of nutritional habits, show that there is a dependence of such variables on the physical, psychosocial, emotional and contextual characteristics of each player. Therefore it is proposed that the rigorous control of the qualitative variables that seem to influence the RPE and fatigue in the long term, may facilitate the understanding of data and the determination of unknown factors that could influence these variables. Finally, because Session-RPE is a direct indicator of the internal load of training (psycho-physiological stress experienced by the athlete), the possible attenuation of Session-RPE through the improvement in nutritional habits, would allow to apply the planned external loads of training with less internal stress and better recovery between sessions, with a decrease in fatigue, despite of the advance of the season.

Performance Factors in Women's Team Handball: Physical and Physiological Aspects—A Review

Team handball is an Olympic sport played professionally in many European countries. Nevertheless, a scientific knowledge regarding women's elite team handball demands is limited. Thus, the purpose of this article was to review a series of studies (n = 33) on physical characteristics, physiological attributes, physical attributes, throwing velocity, and on-court performances of women's team handball players. Such empirical and practical information is essential to design and implement successful short-term and long-term training programs for women's team handball players. Our review revealed that (a) players that have a higher skill level are taller and have a higher fat-free mass; (b) players who are more aerobically resistant are at an advantage in international level women team handball; (c) strength and power exercises should be emphasized in conditioning programs, because they are associated with both sprint performance and throwing velocity; (d) speed drills should also be implemented in conditioning programs but after a decrease in physical training volume; (e) a time-motion analysis is an effective method of quantifying the demands of team handball and provides a conceptual framework for the specific physical preparation of players. According to our results, there are only few studies on on-court performance and time-motion analysis for women's team handball players, especially concerning acceleration profiles. More studies are needed to examine the effectiveness of different training programs of women's team handball players' physiological and physical attributes.

Expertise in Ultra-Endurance Triathletes Early Sport Involvement, Training Structure, and the Theory of Deliberate Practice

The theory of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993) is predicated on the concept that the engagement in specific forms of practice is necessary for the attainment of expertise. The purpose of this paper was to examine the quantity and type of training performed by expert UE triathletes. Twenty-eight UE triathletes were stratified into expert, middle of the pack, and back of the pack groups based on previous finishing times. All participants provided detailed information regarding their involvement in sports in general and the three triathlon sports in particular. Results illustrated that experts performed more training than non-experts but that the relationship between training and performance was not monotonic as suggested by Ericsson et al. Further, experts' training was designed so periods of high training stress were followed by periods of low stress. However, early specialization was not a requirement for expertise. This work indicates that the theory of deliberate practice does not fully explain expertise development in UE triathlon.

Physical fitness/sports medicine.

"A bibliographic service encompassing exercise physiology, sports injuries, physical conditioning and the medical aspects of exercise".

Cardiac adaptation to endurance exercise in rats

Endurance exercise is widely assumed to improve cardiac function in humans. This project has determined cardiac function following endurance exercise for 6 (n = 30) or 12 ( n = 25) weeks in male Wistar rats (8 weeks old). The exercise protocol was 30 min/day at 0.8 km/h for 5 days/week with an endurance test on the 6th day by running at 1.2 km/h until exhaustion. Exercise endurance increased by 318% after 6 weeks and 609% after 12 weeks. Heart weight/kg body weight increased by 10.2% after 6 weeks and 24.1% after 12 weeks. Echocardiography after 12 weeks showed increases in left ventricular internal diameter in diastole (6.39 +/- 0.32 to 7.90 +/- 0.17 mm), systolic volume (49 +/- 7 to 83 +/- 11 mul) and cardiac output (75 +/- 3 to 107 +/- 8 ml/min) but not left wall thickness in diastole (1.74 +/- 0.07 to 1.80 +/- 0.06 mm). Isolated Langendorff hearts from trained rats displayed decreased left ventricular myocardial stiffness (22 +/- 1.1 to 19.1 +/- 0.3) and reduced purine efflux during pacing-induced workload increases. P-31-NMR spectroscopy in isolated hearts from trained rats showed decreased PCr and PCr/ATP ratios with increased creatine, AMP and ADP concentrations. Thus, this endurance exercise protocol resulted in physiological hypertrophy while maintaining or improving cardiac function.

Protein utilisation and turnover in lines of chickens selected for different aspects of body composition

1. Protein utilisation and turnover were measured in male chickens sampled from a line selected for high breast yield and a randombred control line (lines QL and CL, experiment 1) and in male chickens sampled from lines selected for either high or low abdominal fatness (lines FL and LL, experiment 2). In each experiment, 18 birds per line were given iso-energetic (12.9 MJ ME/kg) diets containing either 120 or 220 g CP/kg from 21 to 29 d (experiment 1) and 33 to 43 d (experiment 2). 2. Measurements were made of growth rate, food intake, body composition, excreta production and N-tau-methylhistidine excretion as a measure of myofibrillar protein breakdown, and fractional rates (%/d) of protein deposition, breakdown and synthesis were calculated. 3. In experiment 1, there were no significant differences between the line means for the fractional measures of protein turnover, but there was marked differential response in the two lines in the fractional rates of protein deposition, breakdown and synthesis, to increase in protein intake. The positive slope of the regressions of fractional (%/d) protein deposition and synthesis rates on protein intake (g/d/kg BW) were approximately 1.4- and 2.0-fold higher respectively in the QL than the CL line birds, and the negative slope of the regression of fractional breakdown rate on protein intake was approximately threefold greater in the CL than the QL line birds. 4. In experiment 2, fractional deposition rate was 6.2% lower, but fractional breakdown rate 9.4% higher in the LL than the FL birds, whilst there was essentially no difference in response of the FL and LL birds in the components of protein turnover to increase in protein intake. Line differences in deposition and breakdown rates were thus a reflection of the considerably higher (20%) food and hence protein intake in the FL than the LL birds. 5. The differential line responses in protein turnover in the two experiments suggest that selection for increased breast muscle yield and for reduced body fatness manipulate different physiological pathways in relation to protein turnover, but neither selection strategy results in an improvement in net protein utilisation at typical levels of protein intake by birds on commercial broiler diets, through a reduction in protein breakdown rate.

Physiological role of carnosine in contracting muscle

High-intensity exercise leads to reductions in muscle substrates (ATP, PCr, and glycogen) and a subsequent accumulation of metabolites (ADP, Pi, H+, and M2+) with a possible increase in free radical production. These factors independently and collectively have deleterious effects on muscle, with significant repercussions on high-intensity performance or training sessions. The effect of carnosine on overcoming muscle fatigue appears to be related to its ability to buffer the increased H+ concentration following high-intensity work. Carnosine, however, has other roles such as an antioxidant, a metal chelator, a Ca2+ and enzyme regulator, an inhibitor of protein glycosylation and protein-protein cross-linking. To date, only 1 study has investigated the effects of carnosine supplementation (not in pure form) on exercise performance in human subjects and found no improvement in repetitive high-intensity work. Much data has come from in vitro work on animal skeletal muscle fibers or other components of muscle contractile mechanisms. Thus further research needs to be carried out on humans to provide additional understanding on the effects of carnosine in vivo.

Physiological mechanisms of thermoregulation in reptiles: a review

The thermal dependence of biochemical reaction rates means that many animals regulate their body temperature so that fluctuations in body temperature are small compared to environmental temperature fluctuations. Thermoregulation is a complex process that involves sensing of the environment, and subsequent processing of the environmental information. We suggest that the physiological mechanisms that facilitate thermoregulation transcend phylogenetic boundaries. Reptiles are primarily used as model organisms for ecological and evolutionary research and, unlike in mammals, the physiological basis of many aspects in thermoregulation remains obscure. Here, we review recent research on regulation of body temperature, thermoreception, body temperature set-points, and cardiovascular control of heating and cooling in reptiles. The aim of this review is to place physiological thermoregulation of reptiles in a wider phylogenetic context. Future research on reptilian thermoregulation should focus on the pathways that connect peripheral sensing to central processing which will ultimately lead to the thermoregulatory response.

Ultra-endurance exercise and oxidative damage: Implications for cardiovascular health

At least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity accumulated on most, preferably all days is considered the minimum level necessary to reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Despite an unclear explanation, some epidemiological data paradoxically suggest that a very high volume of exercise is associated with a decrease in cardiovascular health. Although ultra-endurance exercise training has been shown to increase antioxidant defences (and therefore confer a protective effect against oxidative stress), an increase in oxidative stress may contribute to the development of atherosclerosis via oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Research has also shown that ultra-endurance exercise is associated with acute cardiac dysfunction and injury, and these may also be related to an increase in free radical production. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess whether antioxidant defences are adequate to prevent LDL oxidation that may occur as a result of increased free radical production during very high volumes of exercise. In addition, this work will assist in understanding the accrued effect of repeated ultra-endurance exercise-induced myocardial damage.