Should differences be included? On a wrongly framed problem and an unbearable reality

Este texto se plantea una relectura ética acerca del derecho a la educación de las personas con discapacidades, con un énfasis prioritario de la situación en América Latina. A partir de considerar los sistemas jurídicos, los modos de financiamiento políticos, los porcentajes de inclusión y los programas de seguimiento de la población con discapacidad en edad escolar, se deriva toda una serie de discusiones sobre la idea de formación educativa, el estar junto a otros y las responsabilidades éticas en la tarea de educar.

¿Incluir las diferencias? Sobre un problema mal planteado y una realidad insoportable

Este texto se plantea una relectura ética acerca del derecho a la educación de las personas con discapacidades, con un énfasis prioritario de la situación en América Latina. A partir de considerar los sistemas jurídicos, los modos de financiamiento políticos, los porcentajes de inclusión y los programas de seguimiento de la población con discapacidad en edad escolar, se deriva toda una serie de discusiones sobre la idea de formación educativa, el estar junto a otros y las responsabilidades éticas en la tarea de educar.

Should differences be included? On a wrongly framed problem and an unbearable reality

Este texto se plantea una relectura ética acerca del derecho a la educación de las personas con discapacidades, con un énfasis prioritario de la situación en América Latina. A partir de considerar los sistemas jurídicos, los modos de financiamiento políticos, los porcentajes de inclusión y los programas de seguimiento de la población con discapacidad en edad escolar, se deriva toda una serie de discusiones sobre la idea de formación educativa, el estar junto a otros y las responsabilidades éticas en la tarea de educar.

Should differences be included? On a wrongly framed problem and an unbearable reality

Este texto se plantea una relectura ética acerca del derecho a la educación de las personas con discapacidades, con un énfasis prioritario de la situación en América Latina. A partir de considerar los sistemas jurídicos, los modos de financiamiento políticos, los porcentajes de inclusión y los programas de seguimiento de la población con discapacidad en edad escolar, se deriva toda una serie de discusiones sobre la idea de formación educativa, el estar junto a otros y las responsabilidades éticas en la tarea de educar.

¿Incluir las diferencias? Sobre un problema mal planteado y una realidad insoportable

Este texto se plantea una relectura ética acerca del derecho a la educación de las personas con discapacidades, con un énfasis prioritario de la situación en América Latina. A partir de considerar los sistemas jurídicos, los modos de financiamiento políticos, los porcentajes de inclusión y los programas de seguimiento de la población con discapacidad en edad escolar, se deriva toda una serie de discusiones sobre la idea de formación educativa, el estar junto a otros y las responsabilidades éticas en la tarea de educar.

Planteamientos sobre Sistemas de Voto y Democracia Electrónica.

This paper present a preliminary analysis of electronic voting schemes and the requirements of Electronic Democracy as a part of the work carried out by the authors in the VOTESCRIPT project (TIC2000-1630-C02). A summary of the most relevant experiences on this field are discussed and a basic classification of them is pointed out, according to different degrees on process computerization. As it is shown, most of them only take into account a technological perspective, just trying to imitate the conventional voting schemes. A citizen-base bottom-up perspective is proposed to analyze the implementation of electronic voting systems in order to avoid citizen rejection. The paper also hallmarks the new technical possibilities created to be applied to the development of citizen?s right realm. Further than conventional voting schemes, the paper proposes the use of advanced security services to extend conceptualization of Electronic Democracy in which citizens have a key role on decision making processes.

Infotechnology:new social forms, digital noometamorphosis and noomorphosis

The amazing evolution of technology, ruled by information, is an incubator where, to give several specific examples, we have witnessed the birth and development of electronic mail, medical tele-assistance and e-learning, as well as various forms of cyberspatial communication,such as the immensely popular social networks and blogs.

Análisis de los factores de adopción de comercio electrónico en segmentos de consumidores finales. Aplicación al caso español

El comercio electrónico ha experimentado un fuerte crecimiento en los últimos años, favorecido especialmente por el aumento de las tasas de penetración de Internet en todo el mundo. Sin embargo, no todos los países están evolucionando de la misma manera, con un espectro que va desde las naciones pioneras en desarrollo de tecnologías de la información y comunicaciones, que cuentan con una elevado porcentaje de internautas y de compradores online, hasta las rezagadas de rápida adopción en las que, pese a contar con una menor penetración de acceso, presentan una alta tasa de internautas compradores. Entre ambos extremos se encuentran países como España que, aunque alcanzó hace años una tasa considerable de penetración de usuarios de Internet, no ha conseguido una buena tasa de transformación de internautas en compradores. Pese a que el comercio electrónico ha experimentado importantes aumentos en los últimos años, sus tasas de crecimiento siguen estando por debajo de países con características socio-económicas similares. Para intentar conocer las razones que afectan a la adopción del comercio por parte de los compradores, la investigación científica del fenómeno ha empleado diferentes enfoques teóricos. De entre todos ellos ha destacado el uso de los modelos de adopción, proveniente de la literatura de adopción de sistemas de información en entornos organizativos. Estos modelos se basan en las percepciones de los compradores para determinar qué factores pueden predecir mejor la intención de compra y, en consecuencia, la conducta real de compra de los usuarios. Pese a que en los últimos años han proliferado los trabajos de investigación que aplican los modelos de adopción al comercio electrónico, casi todos tratan de validar sus hipótesis mediante el análisis de muestras de consumidores tratadas como un único conjunto, y del que se obtienen conclusiones generales. Sin embargo, desde el origen del marketing, y en especial a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, se considera que existen diferencias en el comportamiento de los consumidores, que pueden ser debidas a características demográficas, sociológicas o psicológicas. Estas diferencias se traducen en necesidades distintas, que sólo podrán ser satisfechas con una oferta adaptada por parte de los vendedores. Además, por contar el comercio electrónico con unas características particulares que lo diferencian del comercio tradicional –especialmente por la falta de contacto físico entre el comprador y el producto– a las diferencias en la adopción para cada consumidor se le añaden las diferencias derivadas del tipo de producto adquirido, que si bien habían sido consideradas en el canal físico, en el comercio electrónico cobran especial relevancia. A la vista de todo ello, el presente trabajo pretende abordar el estudio de los factores determinantes de la intención de compra y la conducta real de compra en comercio electrónico por parte del consumidor final español, teniendo en cuenta el tipo de segmento al que pertenezca dicho comprador y el tipo de producto considerado. Para ello, el trabajo contiene ocho apartados entre los que se encuentran cuatro bloques teóricos y tres bloques empíricos, además de las conclusiones. Estos bloques dan lugar a los siguientes ocho capítulos por orden de aparición en el trabajo: introducción, situación del comercio electrónico, modelos de adopción de tecnología, segmentación en comercio electrónico, diseño previo del trabajo empírico, diseño de la investigación, análisis de los resultados y conclusiones. El capítulo introductorio justifica la relevancia de la investigación, además de fijar los objetivos, la metodología y las fases seguidas para el desarrollo del trabajo. La justificación se complementa con el segundo capítulo, que cuenta con dos elementos principales: en primer lugar se define el concepto de comercio electrónico y se hace una breve retrospectiva desde sus orígenes hasta la situación actual en un contexto global; en segundo lugar, el análisis estudia la evolución del comercio electrónico en España, mostrando su desarrollo y situación presente a partir de sus principales indicadores. Este apartado no sólo permite conocer el contexto de la investigación, sino que además permite contrastar la relevancia de la muestra utilizada en el presente estudio con el perfil español respecto al comercio electrónico. Los capítulos tercero –modelos de adopción de tecnologías– y cuarto –segmentación en comercio electrónico– sientan las bases teóricas necesarias para abordar el estudio. En el capítulo tres se hace una revisión general de la literatura de modelos de adopción de tecnología y, en particular, de los modelos de adopción empleados en el ámbito del comercio electrónico. El resultado de dicha revisión deriva en la construcción de un modelo adaptado basado en los modelos UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, Teoría unificada de la aceptación y el uso de la tecnología) y UTAUT2, combinado con dos factores específicos de adopción del comercio electrónico: el riesgo percibido y la confianza percibida. Por su parte, en el capítulo cuatro se revisan las metodologías de segmentación de clientes y productos empleadas en la literatura. De dicha revisión se obtienen un amplio conjunto de variables de las que finalmente se escogen nueve variables de clasificación que se consideran adecuadas tanto por su adaptación al contexto del comercio electrónico como por su adecuación a las características de la muestra empleada para validar el modelo. Las nueve variables se agrupan en tres conjuntos: variables de tipo socio-demográfico –género, edad, nivel de estudios, nivel de ingresos, tamaño de la unidad familiar y estado civil–, de comportamiento de compra – experiencia de compra por Internet y frecuencia de compra por Internet– y de tipo psicográfico –motivaciones de compra por Internet. La segunda parte del capítulo cuatro se dedica a la revisión de los criterios empleados en la literatura para la clasificación de los productos en el contexto del comercio electrónico. De dicha revisión se obtienen quince grupos de variables que pueden tomar un total de treinta y cuatro valores, lo que deriva en un elevado número de combinaciones posibles. Sin embargo, pese a haber sido utilizados en el contexto del comercio electrónico, no en todos los casos se ha comprobado la influencia de dichas variables respecto a la intención de compra o la conducta real de compra por Internet; por este motivo, y con el objetivo de definir una clasificación robusta y abordable de tipos de productos, en el capitulo cinco se lleva a cabo una validación de las variables de clasificación de productos mediante un experimento previo con 207 muestras. Seleccionando sólo aquellas variables objetivas que no dependan de la interpretación personal del consumidores y que determinen grupos significativamente distintos respecto a la intención y conducta de compra de los consumidores, se obtiene un modelo de dos variables que combinadas dan lugar a cuatro tipos de productos: bien digital, bien no digital, servicio digital y servicio no digital. Definidos el modelo de adopción y los criterios de segmentación de consumidores y productos, en el sexto capítulo se desarrolla el modelo completo de investigación formado por un conjunto de hipótesis obtenidas de la revisión de la literatura de los capítulos anteriores, en las que se definen las hipótesis de investigación con respecto a las influencias esperadas de las variables de segmentación sobre las relaciones del modelo de adopción. Este modelo confiere a la investigación un carácter social y de tipo fundamentalmente exploratorio, en el que en muchos casos ni siquiera se han encontrado evidencias empíricas previas que permitan el enunciado de hipótesis sobre la influencia de determinadas variables de segmentación. El capítulo seis contiene además la descripción del instrumento de medida empleado en la investigación, conformado por un total de 125 preguntas y sus correspondientes escalas de medida, así como la descripción de la muestra representativa empleada en la validación del modelo, compuesta por un grupo de 817 personas españolas o residentes en España. El capítulo siete constituye el núcleo del análisis empírico del trabajo de investigación, que se compone de dos elementos fundamentales. Primeramente se describen las técnicas estadísticas aplicadas para el estudio de los datos que, dada la complejidad del análisis, se dividen en tres grupos fundamentales: Método de mínimos cuadrados parciales (PLS, Partial Least Squares): herramienta estadística de análisis multivariante con capacidad de análisis predictivo que se emplea en la determinación de las relaciones estructurales de los modelos propuestos. Análisis multigrupo: conjunto de técnicas que permiten comparar los resultados obtenidos con el método PLS entre dos o más grupos derivados del uso de una o más variables de segmentación. En este caso se emplean cinco métodos de comparación, lo que permite asimismo comparar los rendimientos de cada uno de los métodos. Determinación de segmentos no identificados a priori: en el caso de algunas de las variables de segmentación no existe un criterio de clasificación definido a priori, sino que se obtiene a partir de la aplicación de técnicas estadísticas de clasificación. En este caso se emplean dos técnicas fundamentales: análisis de componentes principales –dado el elevado número de variables empleadas para la clasificación– y análisis clúster –del que se combina una técnica jerárquica que calcula el número óptimo de segmentos, con una técnica por etapas que es más eficiente en la clasificación, pero exige conocer el número de clústeres a priori. La aplicación de dichas técnicas estadísticas sobre los modelos resultantes de considerar los distintos criterios de segmentación, tanto de clientes como de productos, da lugar al análisis de un total de 128 modelos de adopción de comercio electrónico y 65 comparaciones multigrupo, cuyos resultados y principales consideraciones son elaboradas a lo largo del capítulo. Para concluir, el capítulo ocho recoge las conclusiones del trabajo divididas en cuatro partes diferenciadas. En primer lugar se examina el grado de alcance de los objetivos planteados al inicio de la investigación; después se desarrollan las principales contribuciones que este trabajo aporta tanto desde el punto de vista metodológico, como desde los punto de vista teórico y práctico; en tercer lugar, se profundiza en las conclusiones derivadas del estudio empírico, que se clasifican según los criterios de segmentación empleados, y que combinan resultados confirmatorios y exploratorios; por último, el trabajo recopila las principales limitaciones de la investigación, tanto de carácter teórico como empírico, así como aquellos aspectos que no habiendo podido plantearse dentro del contexto de este estudio, o como consecuencia de los resultados alcanzados, se presentan como líneas futuras de investigación. ABSTRACT Favoured by an increase of Internet penetration rates across the globe, electronic commerce has experienced a rapid growth over the last few years. Nevertheless, adoption of electronic commerce has differed from one country to another. On one hand, it has been observed that countries leading e-commerce adoption have a large percentage of Internet users as well as of online purchasers; on the other hand, other markets, despite having a low percentage of Internet users, show a high percentage of online buyers. Halfway between those two ends of the spectrum, we find countries such as Spain which, despite having moderately high Internet penetration rates and similar socio-economic characteristics as some of the leading countries, have failed to turn Internet users into active online buyers. Several theoretical approaches have been taken in an attempt to define the factors that influence the use of electronic commerce systems by customers. One of the betterknown frameworks to characterize adoption factors is the acceptance modelling theory, which is derived from the information systems adoption in organizational environments. These models are based on individual perceptions on which factors determine purchase intention, as a mean to explain users’ actual purchasing behaviour. Even though research on electronic commerce adoption models has increased in terms of volume and scope over the last years, the majority of studies validate their hypothesis by using a single sample of consumers from which they obtain general conclusions. Nevertheless, since the birth of marketing, and more specifically from the second half of the 19th century, differences in consumer behaviour owing to demographic, sociologic and psychological characteristics have also been taken into account. And such differences are generally translated into different needs that can only be satisfied when sellers adapt their offer to their target market. Electronic commerce has a number of features that makes it different when compared to traditional commerce; the best example of this is the lack of physical contact between customers and products, and between customers and vendors. Other than that, some differences that depend on the type of product may also play an important role in electronic commerce. From all the above, the present research aims to address the study of the main factors influencing purchase intention and actual purchase behaviour in electronic commerce by Spanish end-consumers, taking into consideration both the customer group to which they belong and the type of product being purchased. In order to achieve this goal, this Thesis is structured in eight chapters: four theoretical sections, three empirical blocks and a final section summarizing the conclusions derived from the research. The chapters are arranged in sequence as follows: introduction, current state of electronic commerce, technology adoption models, electronic commerce segmentation, preliminary design of the empirical work, research design, data analysis and results, and conclusions. The introductory chapter offers a detailed justification of the relevance of this study in the context of e-commerce adoption research; it also sets out the objectives, methodology and research stages. The second chapter further expands and complements the introductory chapter, focusing on two elements: the concept of electronic commerce and its evolution from a general point of view, and the evolution of electronic commerce in Spain and main indicators of adoption. This section is intended to allow the reader to understand the research context, and also to serve as a basis to justify the relevance and representativeness of the sample used in this study. Chapters three (technology acceptance models) and four (segmentation in electronic commerce) set the theoretical foundations for the study. Chapter 3 presents a thorough literature review of technology adoption modelling, focusing on previous studies on electronic commerce acceptance. As a result of the literature review, the research framework is built upon a model based on UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) and its evolution, UTAUT2, including two specific electronic commerce adoption factors: perceived risk and perceived trust. Chapter 4 deals with client and product segmentation methodologies used by experts. From the literature review, a wide range of classification variables is studied, and a shortlist of nine classification variables has been selected for inclusion in the research. The criteria for variable selection were their adequacy to electronic commerce characteristics, as well as adequacy to the sample characteristics. The nine variables have been classified in three groups: socio-demographic (gender, age, education level, income, family size and relationship status), behavioural (experience in electronic commerce and frequency of purchase) and psychographic (online purchase motivations) variables. The second half of chapter 4 is devoted to a review of the product classification criteria in electronic commerce. The review has led to the identification of a final set of fifteen groups of variables, whose combination offered a total of thirty-four possible outputs. However, due to the lack of empirical evidence in the context of electronic commerce, further investigation on the validity of this set of product classifications was deemed necessary. For this reason, chapter 5 proposes an empirical study to test the different product classification variables with 207 samples. A selection of product classifications including only those variables that are objective, able to identify distinct groups and not dependent on consumers’ point of view, led to a final classification of products which consisted on two groups of variables for the final empirical study. The combination of these two groups gave rise to four types of products: digital and non-digital goods, and digital and non-digital services. Chapter six characterizes the research –social, exploratory research– and presents the final research model and research hypotheses. The exploratory nature of the research becomes patent in instances where no prior empirical evidence on the influence of certain segmentation variables was found. Chapter six also includes the description of the measurement instrument used in the research, consisting of a total of 125 questions –and the measurement scales associated to each of them– as well as the description of the sample used for model validation (consisting of 817 Spanish residents). Chapter 7 is the core of the empirical analysis performed to validate the research model, and it is divided into two separate parts: description of the statistical techniques used for data analysis, and actual data analysis and results. The first part is structured in three different blocks: Partial Least Squares Method (PLS): the multi-variable analysis is a statistical method used to determine structural relationships of models and their predictive validity; Multi-group analysis: a set of techniques that allow comparing the outcomes of PLS analysis between two or more groups, by using one or more segmentation variables. More specifically, five comparison methods were used, which additionally gives the opportunity to assess the efficiency of each method. Determination of a priori undefined segments: in some cases, classification criteria did not necessarily exist for some segmentation variables, such as customer motivations. In these cases, the application of statistical classification techniques is required. For this study, two main classification techniques were used sequentially: principal component factor analysis –in order to reduce the number of variables– and cluster analysis. The application of the statistical methods to the models derived from the inclusion of the various segmentation criteria –for both clients and products–, led to the analysis of 128 different electronic commerce adoption models and 65 multi group comparisons. Finally, chapter 8 summarizes the conclusions from the research, divided into four parts: first, an assessment of the degree of achievement of the different research objectives is offered; then, methodological, theoretical and practical implications of the research are drawn; this is followed by a discussion on the results from the empirical study –based on the segmentation criteria for the research–; fourth, and last, the main limitations of the research –both empirical and theoretical– as well as future avenues of research are detailed.

Unidade microcontroladora para gerenciamento eletrônico de um motor de combustão interna ciclo Otto.

Nas últimas décadas, a indústria automobilística mundial vem investindo no desenvolvimento tecnológico dos motores, com o objetivo de alcançar melhor eficiência energética e atender às legislações que limitam a quantidade de resíduos tóxicos nos gases de exaustão e menor consumo de combustível. Isso resultou na implantação dos sistemas de gerenciamento eletrônico do motor, que possibilitam funcionalidades para se controlar diversas variáveis do motor, aumentando consideravelmente o rendimento do motor. Este trabalho tem como objetivos explorar a dinâmica de um motor de combustão interna ciclo Otto, os sinais elétricos associados, e os componentes de seu gerenciamento eletrônico. A partir dessas informações, o trabalho apresenta o processo de analise dos sinais elétricos e as estratégias de controle utilizadas em um sistema de gerenciamento real. Assim, são desenvolvidos o hardware e o firmware de uma unidade microcontroladora para gerenciamento eletrônico do motor. O hardware foi elaborado com uma concepção centralizada, ou seja, foi usado apenas um microcontrolador de 32-bit para gerenciar todas as funções. O firmware de controle foi desenvolvido de forma modular baseado em modelos de malha fechada. O modelo matemático do motor foi identificado utilizando técnicas de controle em um veículo real, e a avalidação do modelo foi obtida através de testes em um dinamômetro inercial.

Human creation, imagination and autonomy: a brief introduction to Castoriadis’ social and psychoanalytical philosophy

During the last decade Castoriadis’ questioning has become a reference point in contemporary social theory. In this article I examine some of the key notions in Castoriadis’ work and explore how he strives to develop a theory on the irreducible creativity in the radical imagination of the individual and in the institution of the social-historical sphere. Firstly, I briefly discuss his conception of modern capitalism as bureaucratic capitalism, a view initiated by his criticism of the USSR regime. The following break up with Marxist theory and his psychoanalytic interests empowered him to criticize Lacan and read Freud in an imaginative, though unorthodox, fashion. I argue that this critical enterprise assisted greatly Castoriadis in his conception of the radical imaginary and in his unveiling of the political aspects of psychoanalysis. On the issue of the radical imaginary and its methodological repercussions, I’m focusing mainly on the radical imagination of the subject and its importance in the transition from the ‘‘psychic’’ to the ‘‘subject’’. Taking up the notion of “Being” as a starting point, I examine the notion of autonomy, seeking its roots in the ancient Greek world. By looking at notions such as “praxis”, “doing”, “project” and “elucidation”, I show how Castoriadis sought to redefine revolution as a means for social and individual autonomy. Finally I attempt to clarify the meaning of “democracy” and “democratic society” in the context of the social imaginary and its creations, the social imaginary significations.

The electoral success of the Svoboda Party - the consequences for Ukrainian politics. OSW Commentary No. 97, 2012-11-26

The All-Ukrainian Association ‘Svoboda’ scored an unexpected success in the parliamentary elections, winning support from over 10% of the voters and entering the select group of Ukrainian parliamentary parties which operate at a national level. Svoboda’s manifesto is nationalist and anti-liberal, in both economic and political aspects. It is in fact the anti-liberal component of this party’s manifesto which it can thank for achieving such a big electoral success. The faction formed by Svoboda’s 37 representatives in the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) will have a small impact on legislative work, but their activity may add further to the brutalisation of parliamentary life. Furthermore, Svoboda will attempt to make other opposition groupings adopt a more radical approach, which may trigger the disintegration of the United Opposition Baktivshchyna. A new wave of public protests is likely to emerge in Ukraine in the coming months. Therefore, it can be expected that Svoboda will make efforts to join in or even incite them, in order to promote its social and nationalist messages. This may contribute to increasing the popularity of nationalist ideas and to a further radicalisation of sentiments in Ukraine.

The Evolving Integration in East Asia - Too many reservations? CEPS Essay No. 5, 29 April 2013

East Asian economic integration is less well known in Europe than is desirable in the EU’s own enlightened self-interest. It is also badly understood, not least because a range of ‘soft’ cultural, historical and political aspects are insufficiently appreciated in Europe. This CEPS Essay offers a deeper personal reflection on the emergence and development of East Asian economic cooperation and market-driven integration. It attempts to address some of the lingering reservations on both sides and to render the reservations in East Asia more intelligible to Europeans.

Quality of Democracy in Quadruple Helix Structures: The Quality of Democracy in the United States and in Austria, Challenges and Opportunities for Development. ACES Working Papers, 2012

This contribution focuses on analyzing the quality of democracy of the United States (U.S.) and of Austria by using a comparative approach. Even though comparisons are not the only possible or legitimate method of research, this analysis is based on the opinion that comparisons provide crucial analytical perspectives and learning opportunities. Following is the proposition, put directly forward: national political systems (political systems) are comprehensively understood only by using an international comparative approach. International comparisons (of country-based systems) are common (see the status of comparative politics, for example in Sodaro, 2004). Comparisons do not have to be based necessarily on national systems alone, but can also be carried out using “within”-comparisons inside (or beyond) sub-units or regional sub-national systems, for instance the individual provinces in the case of Austria (Campbell, 2007, p. 382).

The Dangers and Inanity of (Euro-) Nationalism: From Communitarianism to Cosmopolitanism. Egmont Paper No. 77, April 2015

INTRODUCTION In the current times of multifaceted crisis, nationalism looks, more than ever, like a positive and necessary feeling. It seems both natural and indispensable if we are to have viable political and social institutions that meet the needs and preferences of all citizens. The following paper contests this vision. Its criticism of nationalism is directed not only at its national forms, but also at any defence of collective identity based on the same model, such as the various forms of European nationalism. Furthermore, the same overriding criticism can be made of different kinds of nationalism, regardless of their more or less open and progressive political content. In order to ground our argument theoretically and practically, we will try to show that nationalism is always potentially harmful to individual rights, and unnecessary for the maintenance of a just social and political system. We will thus oppose any acritical defence of the intrinsic value of a specific community and the belief in its artificial homogeneity. The historical construction of a supposedly homogeneous community, and the insistence on its values, which are perceived as superior and binding, facilitate the absorption of the individual into the collective. As we will explain further in more details, this holistic approach is typical of communitarian approaches. In that respect, it does not really matter whether they appeal to passion or to reason, to some irrational binding features of the community or to more rational political aspects of a common identity. The main problem in nationalism is not the emotion it can trigger, it is not even its reliance on particular values. What makes nationalism problematic is, firstly, that it tends to overlook the intrinsically divisive and contradictory nature of individual and collective interests in unjust societies; secondly, that it attributes an intrinsic superiority to a particular community over others; and thirdly, that it sees politics as a means to promote the interests, values or identity of that community. As an alternative, we will very briefly advocate a cosmopolitan approach that grounds political legitimacy in a demanding approach to individual freedom, rather than in a shared collective identity. However, even if only briefly, we will also carefully distinguish our own vision of cosmopolitanism from those commonly put forward. Frequently, cosmopolitan perspectives entangle their identity frameworks with concrete political projects, without clearly explaining how the latter derive from the former. Our approach to cosmopolitanism, on the other hand, is, first and foremost, a critical vision of all communitarian postulates according to which politics should be based on some form of collective identity. Thus, we insist on the conceptual distinction between a general stance on identity issues and the more practical political ideology one stands for. In a subsequent step, we link this cosmopolitan framework with a progressive approach to individual rights. Because of our demanding approach to individual freedom, our cosmopolitanism goes hand in hand with a revival of identity-free sovereignty. It is therefore distinct from the severe condemnation of sovereignty often found in most mainstream cosmopolitan positions. Finally, instead of the frequent confusion found in public discourses and in the literature between ideals and reality, our position acknowledges the deep gulf separating these two dimensions. It therefore sketches out very general strategic principles to bring normative ideals closer to political reality.

Legislative efforts to combat spam : joint hearing before the Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade, and Consumer Protection and the Subcommittee Telecommunications and the Internet of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, first session, July 9, 2003.

"Serial no. 108-35."