On the acquisition of high-resolution maps with open source software and commercials off-the-shelf quad-rotors

Mosaics are high-resolution images obtained aerially and employed in several scientific research areas, such for example, in the field of environmental monitoring and precision agriculture. Although many high resolution maps are obtained by commercial demand, they can also be acquired with commercial aerial vehicles which provide more experimental autonomy and availability. For what regard to mosaicing-based aerial mission planners, there are not so many - if any - free of charge software. Therefore, in this paper is presented a framework designed with open source tools and libraries as an alternative to commercial tools to carry out mosaicing tasks.

Tridimensional simulation of the speed, pressure and turbulence fields of the air flow on the geometry of a freight truck inside a wind tunnel

This study shows the air flow behavior through the geometry of a freight truck inside a AF6109 wind tunnel with the purpose to predict the speed, pressure and turbulence fields made by the air flow, to decrease the aerodynamic resistance, to calculate the dragging coefficient, to evaluate the aerodynamics of the geometry of the prototype using the CFD technique and to compare the results of the simulation with the results obtained experimentally with the “PETER 739 HAULER” scaled freight truck model located on the floor of the test chamber. The Geometry went through a numerical simulation process using the CFX 5,7. The obtained results showed the behavior of the air flow through the test chamber, and also it showed the variations of speed and pressure at the exit of the chamber and the calculations of the coefficient and the dragging force on the geometry of the freight truck. The evaluation of the aerodynamics showed that the aerodynamic deflector is a device that helped the reduction the dragging produced in a significant way by the air. Furthermore, the dragging coefficient and force on the prototype freight truck could be estimated establishing an incomplete similarity.

Contribution to the analysis and design of reflectarray antennas for reconfigurable beam applications at frequencies above 100 GHz using liquid crystal technology

El trabajo contenido en esta tesis doctoral está encuadrado en el desarrollo de antenas reconfigurables electrónicamente capaces de proporcionar prestaciones competitivas a las aplicaciones cada vez más comunes que operan a frecuencias superiores a 60 GHz. En concreto, esta tesis se centra en el estudio, diseño, e implementación de las antenas reflectarray, a las que se introduce la tecnología de cristal líquido como elemento característico con el que se consigue reconfigurabilidad de haz de forma electrónica. Desde un punto de vista muy general, se puede describir un cristal líquido como un material cuya permitividad eléctrica es variable y controlada por una excitación externa, que generalmente suele corresponderse con un campo eléctrico quasi-estático (AC). Las antenas reflectarray de cristal líquido se han escogido como objeto de estudio por varias razones. La primera de ellas tiene que ver con las ventajas que los reflectarrays, y en especial aquellos realizados en configuración planar, proporcionan con respecto a otras antenas de alta ganancia como los reflectores o los “phased-arrays”. En los reflectarrays, la alimentación a través de una fuente primaria común (característica de reflectores) y el elevado número de grados de libertad de las celdas que los componen (característica de arrays) hacen que estas antenas puedan proporcionar prestaciones eléctricas iguales o mejores que las anteriores, a un coste más reducido y con estructuras de antena más compactas. La segunda razón radica en la flexibilidad que ofrece el cristal líquido a ser confinado y polarizado en recintos de geometría variada, como consecuencia de su fluidez (propiedad de los líquidos). Por ello, la tecnología de cristal líquido permite que el propio elemento reconfigurable en las celdas de reflectarray se adapte a la configuración planar de manera que en sí mismo, el cristal líquido sea una o varias de las capas características de esta configuración. Esto simplifica de forma drástica la estructura y la fabricación de este tipo de antenas, incluso si se comparan con reflectarrays reconfigurables basados en otras tecnologías como diodos, MEMS, etc. Por tanto, su coste y desarrollo es muy reducido, lo que hace que se puedan fabricar reflectarrays reconfigurables eléctricamente grandes, a bajo coste, y en producción elevada. Un ejemplo claro de una estructura similar, y que ha tenido éxito comercial, son las pantallas de cristal líquido. La tercera razón reside en el hecho de que el cristal líquido es, hasta la fecha, de las pocas tecnologías capaces de ofrecer reconfigurabilidad del haz a frecuencias superiores a 60 GHz. De hecho, el cristal líquido permite reconfigurabilidad en un amplio margen de frecuencias, que va desde DC a frecuencias del espectro visible, incluyendo las microondas y los THz. Otras tecnologías, como los materiales ferroeléctricos, el grafeno o la tecnología CMOS “on chip” permiten también conmutar el haz en estas frecuencias. Sin embargo, la tecnología CMOS tiene un elevado coste y actualmente está limitada a frecuencias inferiores a 150 GHz, y aunque los materiales ferroeléctricos o el grafeno puedan conmutar a frecuencias más altas y en un rango más amplio, tienen serias dificultades que los hacen aún inmaduros. En el caso de los materiales ferroeléctricos, los elevados voltajes para conmutar el material los hacen poco atractivos, mientras que en el caso del grafeno, su modelado aún está en discusión, y todavía no se han arrojado resultados experimentales que validen su idoneidad. Estas tres razones hacen que los reflectarrays basados en cristal líquido sean atractivos para multitud de aplicaciones de haz reconfigurable a frecuencias superiores a 60 GHz. Aplicaciones como radar de escaneo de imágenes de alta resolución, espectroscopia molecular, radiómetros para observación atmosférica, o comunicaciones inalámbricas de alta frecuencia (WiGig) son algunas de ellas. La tesis está estructurada en tres partes. En la primera de ellas se describen las características más comunes de los cristales líquidos, centrándonos en detalle en aquellas propiedades ofrecidas por este material en fase nemática. En concreto, se estudiará la anisotropía dieléctrica (Ae) de los cristales líquidos uniaxiales, que son los que se emplean en esta tesis, definida como la diferencia entre la permitividad paralela (£//) y la perpendicular (e±): Ae = e,, - e±. También se estudiará la variación de este parámetro (Ae) con la frecuencia, y el modelado electromagnético macroscópico más general que, extraído a partir de aquella, permite describir el cristal líquido para cada tensión de polarización en celdas de geometría planar. Este modelo es de suma importancia para garantizar precisión en el desfasaje proporcionado por las diferentes celdas reconfigurables para reflectarrays que se describirán en la siguiente parte de la tesis. La segunda parte de la tesis se centra en el diseño de celdas reflectarray resonantes basadas en cristal líquido. La razón por la que se escogen estos tipos de celdas reside en el hecho de que son las únicas capaces de proporcionar rangos de fase elevados ante la reducida anisotropía dieléctrica que ofrecen los cristales líquidos. El objetivo de esta parte trata, por tanto, de obtener estructuras de celdas reflectarray que sean capaces de proporcionar buenas prestaciones eléctricas a nivel de antena, mejorando sustancialmente las prestaciones de las celdas reportadas en el estado del arte, así como de desarrollar una herramienta de diseño general para aquellas. Para ello, se estudian las prestaciones eléctricas de diferentes tipos de elementos resonantes de cristal líquido que van, desde el más sencillo, que ha limitado el estado de la técnica hasta el desarrollo de esta tesis y que está formado por un sólo resonador, a elementos que constan de varios resonadores (multi-resonantes) y que pueden ser monocapa o multicapa. En un primer paso, el procedimiento de diseño de estas estructuras hace uso de un modelo convencional de cristal líquido que ha venido siendo usado en el estado del arte para este tipo de celdas, y que considera el cristal líquido como un material homogéneo e isótropo cuya permitividad varía entre (e/7) y (e±). Sin embargo, en esta parte de la tesis se demuestra que dicho modelado no es suficiente para describir de forma genérica el comportamiento del cristal líquido en las celdas tipo reflectarray. En la tesis se proponen procedimientos más exactos para el análisis y diseño basados en un modelo más general que define el cristal líquido como un material anisótropo e inhomogeneo en tres dimensiones, y se ha implementado una técnica que permite optimizar celdas multi-resonantes de forma eficiente para conseguir elevadas prestaciones en cuanto a ancho de banda, rango de fase, pérdidas, o sensibilidad al ángulo de incidencia. Los errores cometidos en el uso del modelado convencional a nivel de celda (amplitud y fase) se han analizado para varias geometrías, usando medidas de varios prototipos de antena que usan un cristal líquido real a frecuencias superiores a 100 GHz. Las medidas se han realizado en entorno periódico mediante un banco cuasi-óptico, que ha sido diseñado especialmente para este fin. Uno de estos prototipos se ha optimizado a 100 GHz para conseguir un ancho de banda relativamente elevado (10%), pérdidas reducidas, un rango de fase mayor de 360º, baja sensibilidad al ángulo de incidencia, y baja influencia de la inhomogeneidad transversal del cristal líquido en la celda. Estas prestaciones a nivel de celda superan de forma clara aquellas conseguidas por otros elementos que se han reportado en la literatura, de manera que dicho prototipo se ha usado en la última parte de la tesis para realizar diversas antenas de barrido. Finalmente, en esta parte se presenta una estrategia de caracterización de la anisotropía macroscópica a partir de medidas de los elementos de reflectarray diseñados en banco cuasi-óptico, obteniendo resultados tanto en las frecuencias de interés en RF como en AC, y comparándolas con aquellas obtenidas mediante otros métodos. La tercera parte de la tesis consiste en el estudio, diseño, fabricación y medida de antenas reconfigurables basadas en cristal líquido en configuraciones complejas. En reflectarrays pasivos, el procedimiento de diseño de la antena se limita únicamente al ajuste en cada celda de la antena de las dimensiones de las metalizaciones que se emplean para el control de fase, mediante procesos de optimización bien conocidos. Sin embargo, en el caso de reflectarrays reconfigurables basados en cristal líquido, resulta necesario un paso adicional, que consiste en calcular de forma adecuada las tensiones de control en cada celda del reflectarray para configurar la fase requerida en cada una de ellas, así como diseñar la estructura y los circuitos de control que permitan direccionar a cada elemento su tensión correspondiente. La síntesis de tensiones es por tanto igual o más importante que el diseño de la geometría de las celdas, puesto que éstas son las que están directamente relacionadas con la fase. En el estado del arte, existen varias estrategias de síntesis de tensiones que se basan en la caracterización experimental de la curva de fase respecto al voltaje. Sin embargo, esta caracterización sólo puede hacerse a un solo ángulo de incidencia y para unas determinadas dimensiones de celda, lo que produce que las tensiones sintetizadas sean diferentes de las adecuadas, y en definitiva que se alcancen errores de fase mayores de 70º. De esta forma, hasta la fecha, las prestaciones a nivel de antena que se han conseguido son reducidas en cuanto a ancho de banda, rango de escaneo o nivel de lóbulos secundarios. En esta última parte de la tesis, se introduce una nueva estrategia de síntesis de tensiones que es capaz de predecir mediante simulaciones, y con alta precisión, las tensiones que deben introducirse en cada celda teniendo en cuenta su ángulo de incidencia, sus dimensiones, la frecuencia, así como la señal de polarización definida por su frecuencia y forma de onda AC. Esta estrategia se basa en modelar cada uno de los estados de permitividad del cristal líquido como un sustrato anisótropo con inhomogeneidad longitudinal (1D), o en ciertos casos, como un tensor equivalente homogéneo. La precisión de ambos modelos electromagnéticos también se discute. Con el objetivo de obtener una herramienta eficiente de cálculo de tensiones, también se ha escrito e implementado una herramienta de análisis basada en el Método de los Momentos en el Dominio Espectral (SD-MoM) para sustratos estratificados anisótropos, que se usa en cada iteración del procedimiento de síntesis para analizar cada una de las celdas de la antena. La síntesis de tensiones se ha diseñado además para reducir al máximo el efecto del rizado de amplitud en el diagrama de radiación, que es característico en los reflectarrays que están formados por celdas con pérdidas elevadas, lo que en sí, supone un avance adicional para la obtención de mejores prestaciones de antena. Para el cálculo de los diagramas de radiación empleados en el procedimiento de síntesis, se asume un análisis elemento a elemento considerando periodicidad local, y se propone el uso de un método capaz de modelar el campo incidente de forma que se elimine la limitación de la periodicidad local en la excitación. Una vez definida la estrategia adecuada de cálculo de las tensiones a aplicar al cristal líquido en cada celda, la estructura de direccionamiento de las mismas en la antena, y diseñados los circuitos de control, se diseñan, fabrican y miden dos prototipos diferentes de antena de barrido electrónico a 100 GHz usando las celdas anteriormente presentadas. El primero de estos prototipos es un reflectarray en configuración “single offset” con capacidad de escaneo en un plano (elevación o azimut). Aunque previamente se realizan diseños de antenas de barrido en 2D a varias frecuencias en el rango de milimétricas y sub-milimétricas, y se proponen ciertas estrategias de direccionamiento que permiten conseguir este objetivo, se desarrolla el prototipo con direccionamiento en una dimensión con el fin de reducir el número de controles y posibles errores de fabricación, y así también validar la herramienta de diseño. Para un tamaño medio de apertura (con un numero de filas y columnas entre 30 y 50 elementos, lo que significa un reflectarray con un número de elementos superior a 900), la configuración “single offset” proporciona rangos de escaneo elevados, y ganancias que pueden oscilar entre los 20 y 30 dBi. En concreto, el prototipo medido proporciona un haz de barrido en un rango angular de 55º, en el que el nivel de lóbulos secundarios (SLL) permanece mejor de -13 dB en un ancho de banda de un 8%. La ganancia máxima es de 19.4 dBi. Estas prestaciones superan de forma clara aquellas conseguidas por otros autores. El segundo prototipo se corresponde con una antena de doble reflector que usa el reflectarray de cristal líquido como sub-reflector para escanear el haz en un plano (elevación o azimut). El objetivo básico de esta geometría es obtener mayores ganancias que en el reflectarray “single offset” con una estructura más compacta, aunque a expensas de reducir el rango de barrido. En concreto, se obtiene una ganancia máxima de 35 dBi, y un rango de barrido de 12º. Los procedimientos de síntesis de tensiones y de diseño de las estructuras de las celdas forman, en su conjunto, una herramienta completa de diseño precisa y eficiente de antenas reflectarray reconfigurables basados en cristales líquidos. Dicha herramienta se ha validado mediante el diseño, la fabricación y la medida de los prototipos anteriormente citados a 100 GHz, que consiguen algo nunca alcanzado anteriormente en la investigación de este tipo de antenas: unas prestaciones competitivas y una predicción excelente de los resultados. El procedimiento es general, y por tanto se puede usar a cualquier frecuencia en la que el cristal líquido ofrezca anisotropía dieléctrica, incluidos los THz. Los prototipos desarrollados en esta tesis doctoral suponen también unas de las primeras antenas de barrido real a frecuencias superiores a 100 GHz. En concreto, la antena de doble reflector para escaneo de haz es la primera antena reconfigurable electrónicamente a frecuencias superiores a 60 GHz que superan los 25 dBi de ganancia, siendo a su vez la primera antena de doble reflector que contiene un reflectarray reconfigurable como sub-reflector. Finalmente, se proponen ciertas mejoras que aún deben se deben realizar para hacer que estas antenas puedan ser un producto completamente desarrollado y competitivo en el mercado. ABSTRACT The work presented in this thesis is focused on the development of electronically reconfigurable antennas that are able to provide competitive electrical performance to the increasingly common applications operating at frequencies above 60 GHz. Specifically, this thesis presents the study, design, and implementation of reflectarray antennas, which incorporate liquid crystal (LC) materials to scan or reconfigure the beam electronically. From a general point of view, a liquid crystal can be defined as a material whose dielectric permittivity is variable and can be controlled with an external excitation, which usually corresponds with a quasi-static electric field (AC). By changing the dielectric permittivity at each cell that makes up the reflectarray, the phase shift on the aperture is controlled, so that a prescribed radiation pattern can be configured. Liquid Crystal-based reflectarrays have been chosen for several reasons. The first has to do with the advantages provided by the reflectarray antenna with respect to other high gain antennas, such as reflectors or phased arrays. The RF feeding in reflectarrays is achieved by using a common primary source (as in reflectors). This arrangement and the large number of degrees of freedom provided by the cells that make up the reflectarray (as in arrays), allow these antennas to provide a similar or even better electrical performance than other low profile antennas (reflectors and arrays), but assuming a more reduced cost and compactness. The second reason is the flexibility of the liquid crystal to be confined in an arbitrary geometry due to its fluidity (property of liquids). Therefore, the liquid crystal is able to adapt to a planar geometry so that it is one or more of the typical layers of this configuration. This simplifies drastically both the structure and manufacture of this type of antenna, even when compared with reconfigurable reflectarrays based on other technologies, such as diodes MEMS, etc. Therefore, the cost of developing this type of antenna is very small, which means that electrically large reconfigurable reflectarrays could be manufactured assuming low cost and greater productions. A paradigmatic example of a similar structure is the liquid crystal panel, which has already been commercialized successfully. The third reason lies in the fact that, at present, the liquid crystal is one of the few technologies capable of providing switching capabilities at frequencies above 60 GHz. In fact, the liquid crystal allows its permittivity to be switched in a wide range of frequencies, which are from DC to the visible spectrum, including microwaves and THz. Other technologies, such as ferroelectric materials, graphene or CMOS "on chip" technology also allow the beam to be switched at these frequencies. However, CMOS technology is expensive and is currently limited to frequencies below 150 GHz, and although ferroelectric materials or graphene can switch at higher frequencies and in a wider range, they have serious difficulties that make them immature. Ferroelectric materials involve the use of very high voltages to switch the material, making them unattractive, whereas the electromagnetic modelling of the graphene is still under discussion, so that the experimental results of devices based on this latter technology have not been reported yet. These three reasons make LC-based reflectarrays attractive for many applications that involve the use of electronically reconfigurable beams at frequencies beyond 60 GHz. Applications such as high resolution imaging radars, molecular spectroscopy, radiometers for atmospheric observation, or high frequency wireless communications (WiGig) are just some of them. This thesis is divided into three parts. In the first part, the most common properties of the liquid crystal materials are described, especially those exhibited in the nematic phase. The study is focused on the dielectric anisotropy (Ac) of uniaxial liquid crystals, which is defined as the difference between the parallel (e/7) and perpendicular (e±) permittivities: Ae = e,, - e±. This parameter allows the permittivity of a LC confined in an arbitrary volume at a certain biasing voltage to be described by solving a variational problem that involves both the electrostatic and elastic energies. Thus, the frequency dependence of (Ae) is also described and characterised. Note that an appropriate LC modelling is quite important to ensure enough accuracy in the phase shift provided by each cell that makes up the reflectarray, and therefore to achieve a good electrical performance at the antenna level. The second part of the thesis is focused on the design of resonant reflectarray cells based on liquid crystal. The reason why resonant cells have been chosen lies in the fact that they are able to provide enough phase range using the values of the dielectric anisotropy of the liquid crystals, which are typically small. Thus, the aim of this part is to investigate several reflectarray cell architectures capable of providing good electrical performance at the antenna level, which significantly improve the electrical performance of the cells reported in the literature. Similarly, another of the objectives is to develop a general tool to design these cells. To fulfill these objectives, the electrical yields of different types of resonant reflectarray elements are investigated, beginning from the simplest, which is made up of a single resonator and limits the state of the art. To overcome the electrical limitations of the single resonant cell, several elements consisting of multiple resonators are considered, which can be single-layer or multilayer. In a first step, the design procedure of these structures makes use of a conventional electromagnetic model which has been used in the literature, which considers that the liquid crystal behaves as homogeneous and isotropic materials whose permittivity varies between (e/7) y (e±). However, in this part of the thesis it is shown that the conventional modelling is not enough to describe the physical behaviour of the liquid crystal in reflectarray cells accurately. Therefore, a more accurate analysis and design procedure based on a more general model is proposed and developed, which defines the liquid crystal as an anisotropic three-dimensional inhomogeneous material. The design procedure is able to optimize multi-resonant cells efficiently to achieve good electrical performance in terms of bandwidth, phase range, losses, or sensitivity to the angle of incidence. The errors made when the conventional modelling (amplitude and phase) is considered have been also analysed for various cell geometries, by using measured results from several antenna prototypes made up of real liquid crystals at frequencies above 100 GHz. The measurements have been performed in a periodic environment using a quasi-optical bench, which has been designed especially for this purpose. One of these prototypes has been optimized to achieve a relatively large bandwidth (10%) at 100 GHz, low losses, a phase range of more than 360º, a low sensitivity to angle of incidence, and a low influence of the transversal inhomogeneity of the liquid crystal in the cell. The electrical yields of this prototype at the cell level improve those achieved by other elements reported in the literature, so that this prototype has been used in the last part of the thesis to perform several complete antennas for beam scanning applications. Finally, in this second part of the thesis, a novel strategy to characterise the macroscopic anisotropy using reflectarray cells is presented. The results in both RF and AC frequencies are compared with those obtained by other methods. The third part of the thesis consists on the study, design, manufacture and testing of LCbased reflectarray antennas in complex configurations. Note that the design procedure of a passive reflectarray antenna just consists on finding out the dimensions of the metallisations of each cell (which are used for phase control), using well-known optimization processes. However, in the case of reconfigurable reflectarrays based on liquid crystals, an additional step must be taken into account, which consists of accurately calculating the control voltages to be applied to each cell to configure the required phase-shift distribution on the surface of the antenna. Similarly, the structure to address the voltages at each cell and the control circuitry must be also considered. Therefore, the voltage synthesis is even more important than the design of the cell geometries (dimensions), since the voltages are directly related to the phase-shift. Several voltage synthesis procedures have been proposed in the state of the art, which are based on the experimental characterization of the phase/voltage curve. However, this characterization can be only carried out at a single angle of incidence and at certain cell dimensions, so that the synthesized voltages are different from those needed, thus giving rise to phase errors of more than 70°. Thus, the electrical yields of the LCreflectarrays reported in the literature are limited in terms of bandwidth, scanning range or side lobes level. In this last part of the thesis, a new voltage synthesis procedure has been defined and developed, which allows the required voltage to be calculated at each cell using simulations that take into account the particular dimensions of the cells, their angles of incidence, the frequency, and the AC biasing signal (frequency and waveform). The strategy is based on the modelling of each one of the permittivity states of the liquid crystal as an anisotropic substrate with longitudinal inhomogeneity (1D), or in certain cases, as an equivalent homogeneous tensor. The accuracy of both electromagnetic models is also discussed. The phase errors made by using the proposed voltage synthesis are better than 7º. In order to obtain an efficient tool to analyse and design the reflectarray, an electromagnetic analysis tool based on the Method of Moments in the spectral domain (SD-MoM) has also written and developed for anisotropic stratified media, which is used at each iteration of the voltage synthesis procedure. The voltage synthesis is also designed to minimize the effect of amplitude ripple on the radiation pattern, which is typical of reflectarrays made up of cells exhibiting high losses and represents a further advance in achieving a better antenna performance. To calculate the radiation patterns used in the synthesis procedure, an element-by-element analysis is assumed, which considers the local periodicity approach. Under this consideration, the use of a novel method is proposed, which avoids the limitation that the local periodicity imposes on the excitation. Once the appropriate strategy to calculate the voltages to be applied at each cell is developed, and once it is designed and manufactured both the structure to address the voltages to the antenna and the control circuits, two complete LC-based reflectarray antennas that operate at 100 GHz have been designed, manufactured and tested using the previously presented cells. The first prototype consists of a single offset reflectarray with beam scanning capabilities on one plane (elevation and azimuth). Although several LC-reflectarray antennas that provide 2-D scanning capabilities are also designed, and certain strategies to achieve the 2-D addressing of the voltage are proposed, the manufactured prototype addresses the voltages in one dimension in order to reduce the number of controls and manufacturing errors, and thereby validating the design tool. For an average aperture size (with a number of rows and columns of between 30 and 50 elements, which means a reflectarray with more than 900 cells), the single offset configuration provides an antenna gain of between 20 and 30 dBi and a large scanning range. The prototype tested at 100 GHz exhibits an electronically scanned beam in an angular range of 55º and 8% of bandwidth, in which the side lobe level (SLL) remains better than -13 dB. The maximum gain is 19.4 dBi. The electrical performance of the antenna is clearly an improvement on those achieved by other authors in the state of the art. The second prototype corresponds to a dual reflector antenna with a liquid crystal-based reflectarray used as a sub-reflector for beam scanning in one plane (azimuth or elevation). The main objective is to obtain a higher gain than that provided by the single offset configuration, but using a more compact architecture. In this case, a maximum gain of 35 dBi is achieved, although at the expense of reducing the scanning range to 12°, which is inherent in this type of structure. As a general statement, the voltage synthesis and the design procedure of the cells, jointly make up a complete, accurate and efficient design tool of reconfigurable reflectarray antennas based on liquid crystals. The tool has been validated by testing the previously mentioned prototypes at 100 GHz, which achieve something never reached before for this type of antenna: a competitive electrical performance, and an excellent prediction of the results. The design procedure is general and therefore can be used at any frequency for which the liquid crystal exhibits dielectric anisotropy. The two prototypes designed, manufactured and tested in this thesis are also some of the first antennas that currently operate at frequencies above 100 GHz. In fact, the dual reflector antenna is the first electronically scanned dual reflector antenna at frequencies above 60 GHz (the operation frequency is 100 GHz) with a gain greater than 25 dBi, being in turn the first dual-reflector antenna with a real reconfigurable sub-reflectarray. Finally, some improvements that should be still investigated to make these antennas commercially competitive are proposed.

Co-simulation Methodologies for Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Dynamics

In recent decades, full electric and hybrid electric vehicles have emerged as an alternative to conventional cars due to a range of factors, including environmental and economic aspects. These vehicles are the result of considerable efforts to seek ways of reducing the use of fossil fuel for vehicle propulsion. Sophisticated technologies such as hybrid and electric powertrains require careful study and optimization. Mathematical models play a key role at this point. Currently, many advanced mathematical analysis tools, as well as computer applications have been built for vehicle simulation purposes. Given the great interest of hybrid and electric powertrains, along with the increasing importance of reliable computer-based models, the author decided to integrate both aspects in the research purpose of this work. Furthermore, this is one of the first final degree projects held at the ETSII (Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineers) that covers the study of hybrid and electric propulsion systems. The present project is based on MBS3D 2.0, a specialized software for the dynamic simulation of multibody systems developed at the UPM Institute of Automobile Research (INSIA). Automobiles are a clear example of complex multibody systems, which are present in nearly every field of engineering. The work presented here benefits from the availability of MBS3D software. This program has proven to be a very efficient tool, with a highly developed underlying mathematical formulation. On this basis, the focus of this project is the extension of MBS3D features in order to be able to perform dynamic simulations of hybrid and electric vehicle models. This requires the joint simulation of the mechanical model of the vehicle, together with the model of the hybrid or electric powertrain. These sub-models belong to completely different physical domains. In fact the powertrain consists of energy storage systems, electrical machines and power electronics, connected to purely mechanical components (wheels, suspension, transmission, clutch…). The challenge today is to create a global vehicle model that is valid for computer simulation. Therefore, the main goal of this project is to apply co-simulation methodologies to a comprehensive model of an electric vehicle, where sub-models from different areas of engineering are coupled. The created electric vehicle (EV) model consists of a separately excited DC electric motor, a Li-ion battery pack, a DC/DC chopper converter and a multibody vehicle model. Co-simulation techniques allow car designers to simulate complex vehicle architectures and behaviors, which are usually difficult to implement in a real environment due to safety and/or economic reasons. In addition, multi-domain computational models help to detect the effects of different driving patterns and parameters and improve the models in a fast and effective way. Automotive designers can greatly benefit from a multidisciplinary approach of new hybrid and electric vehicles. In this case, the global electric vehicle model includes an electrical subsystem and a mechanical subsystem. The electrical subsystem consists of three basic components: electric motor, battery pack and power converter. A modular representation is used for building the dynamic model of the vehicle drivetrain. This means that every component of the drivetrain (submodule) is modeled separately and has its own general dynamic model, with clearly defined inputs and outputs. Then, all the particular submodules are assembled according to the drivetrain configuration and, in this way, the power flow across the components is completely determined. Dynamic models of electrical components are often based on equivalent circuits, where Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are applied to draw the algebraic and differential equations. Here, Randles circuit is used for dynamic modeling of the battery and the electric motor is modeled through the analysis of the equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC motor, where the power converter is included. The mechanical subsystem is defined by MBS3D equations. These equations consider the position, velocity and acceleration of all the bodies comprising the vehicle multibody system. MBS3D 2.0 is entirely written in MATLAB and the structure of the program has been thoroughly studied and understood by the author. MBS3D software is adapted according to the requirements of the applied co-simulation method. Some of the core functions are modified, such as integrator and graphics, and several auxiliary functions are added in order to compute the mathematical model of the electrical components. By coupling and co-simulating both subsystems, it is possible to evaluate the dynamic interaction among all the components of the drivetrain. ‘Tight-coupling’ method is used to cosimulate the sub-models. This approach integrates all subsystems simultaneously and the results of the integration are exchanged by function-call. This means that the integration is done jointly for the mechanical and the electrical subsystem, under a single integrator and then, the speed of integration is determined by the slower subsystem. Simulations are then used to show the performance of the developed EV model. However, this project focuses more on the validation of the computational and mathematical tool for electric and hybrid vehicle simulation. For this purpose, a detailed study and comparison of different integrators within the MATLAB environment is done. Consequently, the main efforts are directed towards the implementation of co-simulation techniques in MBS3D software. In this regard, it is not intended to create an extremely precise EV model in terms of real vehicle performance, although an acceptable level of accuracy is achieved. The gap between the EV model and the real system is filled, in a way, by introducing the gas and brake pedals input, which reflects the actual driver behavior. This input is included directly in the differential equations of the model, and determines the amount of current provided to the electric motor. For a separately excited DC motor, the rotor current is proportional to the traction torque delivered to the car wheels. Therefore, as it occurs in the case of real vehicle models, the propulsion torque in the mathematical model is controlled through acceleration and brake pedal commands. The designed transmission system also includes a reduction gear that adapts the torque coming for the motor drive and transfers it. The main contribution of this project is, therefore, the implementation of a new calculation path for the wheel torques, based on performance characteristics and outputs of the electric powertrain model. Originally, the wheel traction and braking torques were input to MBS3D through a vector directly computed by the user in a MATLAB script. Now, they are calculated as a function of the motor current which, in turn, depends on the current provided by the battery pack across the DC/DC chopper converter. The motor and battery currents and voltages are the solutions of the electrical ODE (Ordinary Differential Equation) system coupled to the multibody system. Simultaneously, the outputs of MBS3D model are the position, velocity and acceleration of the vehicle at all times. The motor shaft speed is computed from the output vehicle speed considering the wheel radius, the gear reduction ratio and the transmission efficiency. This motor shaft speed, somehow available from MBS3D model, is then introduced in the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem. In this way, MBS3D and the electrical powertrain model are interconnected and both subsystems exchange values resulting as expected with tight-coupling approach.When programming mathematical models of complex systems, code optimization is a key step in the process. A way to improve the overall performance of the integration, making use of C/C++ as an alternative programming language, is described and implemented. Although this entails a higher computational burden, it leads to important advantages regarding cosimulation speed and stability. In order to do this, it is necessary to integrate MATLAB with another integrated development environment (IDE), where C/C++ code can be generated and executed. In this project, C/C++ files are programmed in Microsoft Visual Studio and the interface between both IDEs is created by building C/C++ MEX file functions. These programs contain functions or subroutines that can be dynamically linked and executed from MATLAB. This process achieves reductions in simulation time up to two orders of magnitude. The tests performed with different integrators, also reveal the stiff character of the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem, and allow the improvement of the cosimulation process. When varying the parameters of the integration and/or the initial conditions of the problem, the solutions of the system of equations show better dynamic response and stability, depending on the integrator used. Several integrators, with variable and non-variable step-size, and for stiff and non-stiff problems are applied to the coupled ODE system. Then, the results are analyzed, compared and discussed. From all the above, the project can be divided into four main parts: 1. Creation of the equation-based electric vehicle model; 2. Programming, simulation and adjustment of the electric vehicle model; 3. Application of co-simulation methodologies to MBS3D and the electric powertrain subsystem; and 4. Code optimization and study of different integrators. Additionally, in order to deeply understand the context of the project, the first chapters include an introduction to basic vehicle dynamics, current classification of hybrid and electric vehicles and an explanation of the involved technologies such as brake energy regeneration, electric and non-electric propulsion systems for EVs and HEVs (hybrid electric vehicles) and their control strategies. Later, the problem of dynamic modeling of hybrid and electric vehicles is discussed. The integrated development environment and the simulation tool are also briefly described. The core chapters include an explanation of the major co-simulation methodologies and how they have been programmed and applied to the electric powertrain model together with the multibody system dynamic model. Finally, the last chapters summarize the main results and conclusions of the project and propose further research topics. In conclusion, co-simulation methodologies are applicable within the integrated development environments MATLAB and Visual Studio, and the simulation tool MBS3D 2.0, where equation-based models of multidisciplinary subsystems, consisting of mechanical and electrical components, are coupled and integrated in a very efficient way.

Analysing the complexity of the model-based decision making processes within the industrial management context

PURPOSE The decision-making process plays a key role in organizations. Every decision-making process produces a final choice that may or may not prompt action. Recurrently, decision makers find themselves in the dichotomous question of following a traditional sequence decision-making process where the output of a decision is used as the input of the next stage of the decision, or following a joint decision-making approach where several decisions are taken simultaneously. The implication of the decision-making process will impact different players of the organization. The choice of the decision- making approach becomes difficult to find, even with the current literature and practitioners’ knowledge. The pursuit of better ways for making decisions has been a common goal for academics and practitioners. Management scientists use different techniques and approaches to improve different types of decisions. The purpose of this decision is to use the available resources as well as possible (data and techniques) to achieve the objectives of the organization. The developing and applying of models and concepts may be helpful to solve managerial problems faced every day in different companies. As a result of this research different decision models are presented to contribute to the body of knowledge of management science. The first models are focused on the manufacturing industry and the second part of the models on the health care industry. Despite these models being case specific, they serve the purpose of exemplifying that different approaches to the problems and could provide interesting results. Unfortunately, there is no universal recipe that could be applied to all the problems. Furthermore, the same model could deliver good results with certain data and bad results for other data. A framework to analyse the data before selecting the model to be used is presented and tested in the models developed to exemplify the ideas. METHODOLOGY As the first step of the research a systematic literature review on the joint decision is presented, as are the different opinions and suggestions of different scholars. For the next stage of the thesis, the decision-making process of more than 50 companies was analysed in companies from different sectors in the production planning area at the Job Shop level. The data was obtained using surveys and face-to-face interviews. The following part of the research into the decision-making process was held in two application fields that are highly relevant for our society; manufacturing and health care. The first step was to study the interactions and develop a mathematical model for the replenishment of the car assembly where the problem of “Vehicle routing problem and Inventory” were combined. The next step was to add the scheduling or car production (car sequencing) decision and use some metaheuristics such as ant colony and genetic algorithms to measure if the behaviour is kept up with different case size problems. A similar approach is presented in a production of semiconductors and aviation parts, where a hoist has to change from one station to another to deal with the work, and a jobs schedule has to be done. However, for this problem simulation was used for experimentation. In parallel, the scheduling of operating rooms was studied. Surgeries were allocated to surgeons and the scheduling of operating rooms was analysed. The first part of the research was done in a Teaching hospital, and for the second part the interaction of uncertainty was added. Once the previous problem had been analysed a general framework to characterize the instance was built. In the final chapter a general conclusion is presented. FINDINGS AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS The first part of the contributions is an update of the decision-making literature review. Also an analysis of the possible savings resulting from a change in the decision process is made. Then, the results of the survey, which present a lack of consistency between what the managers believe and the reality of the integration of their decisions. In the next stage of the thesis, a contribution to the body of knowledge of the operation research, with the joint solution of the replenishment, sequencing and inventory problem in the assembly line is made, together with a parallel work with the operating rooms scheduling where different solutions approaches are presented. In addition to the contribution of the solving methods, with the use of different techniques, the main contribution is the framework that is proposed to pre-evaluate the problem before thinking of the techniques to solve it. However, there is no straightforward answer as to whether it is better to have joint or sequential solutions. Following the proposed framework with the evaluation of factors such as the flexibility of the answer, the number of actors, and the tightness of the data, give us important hints as to the most suitable direction to take to tackle the problem. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS AND AVENUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH In the first part of the work it was really complicated to calculate the possible savings of different projects, since in many papers these quantities are not reported or the impact is based on non-quantifiable benefits. The other issue is the confidentiality of many projects where the data cannot be presented. For the car assembly line problem more computational power would allow us to solve bigger instances. For the operation research problem there was a lack of historical data to perform a parallel analysis in the teaching hospital. In order to keep testing the decision framework it is necessary to keep applying more case studies in order to generalize the results and make them more evident and less ambiguous. The health care field offers great opportunities since despite the recent awareness of the need to improve the decision-making process there are many opportunities to improve. Another big difference with the automotive industry is that the last improvements are not spread among all the actors. Therefore, in the future this research will focus more on the collaboration between academia and the health care sector.

Diseño para fabricación digital: definición unívoca entre forma y fabricación en arquitectura

La presente investigación se inicia planteando el objetivo de identificar los parámetros geométricos que son exclusivos del proceso de generación de la Forma y relacionarlos con los invariantes relacionados con la Fabricación digital aplicada a la Arquitectura. Con ello se pretende recuperar la geometría como herramienta principal del proceso de Proyecto ampliando su ámbito de actuación al encontrar una relación con los procesos de fabricación digital. El primer capítulo describe los antecedentes y contexto histórico centrándose especialmente en la influencia de la capacidad de definir geometrías complejas digitalmente mediante la aplicación de algoritmos. En los primeros ejemplos la aproximación del Arquitecto a proyectos con geometrías complejas no euclídeas aún se emplea sin precisión en la comunicación de la geometría ideada para su puesta en obra. Las técnicas constructivas obligan a asumir una tolerancia de desviación entre proyecto y obra y la previsión del comportamiento de esa geometría no permite asegurar su comportamiento final. No será hasta la introducción de herramientas CAD en el proceso de ideación arquitectónica cuando el Arquitecto se capacite para generar geometrías no representables de forma analógica. Sin embargo, la imposibilidad de trasladar la geometría proyectada a la praxis constructiva impedirá la plasmación de un proceso completo, salvo en las contadas ocasiones que se recogen en este texto. “El análisis cronológico de las referencias establece como aspecto esencial para la construcción de geometrías complejas la capacidad primero para definir y comunicar de forma precisa e inequívoca la geometría y después la capacidad de analizar el desempeño prestacional de dicha propuesta geométrica”. La presente investigación se inicia planteando el objetivo de identificar los parámetros geométricos que son exclusivos del proceso de generación de la Forma y relacionarlos con los invariantes relacionados con la Fabricación digital aplicada a la Arquitectura. Con ello se pretende recuperar la geometría como herramienta principal del proceso de Proyecto ampliando su ámbito de actuación al encontrar una relación con los procesos de fabricación digital. El primer capítulo describe los antecedentes y contexto histórico centrándose especialmente en la influencia de la capacidad de definir geometrías complejas digitalmente mediante la aplicación de algoritmos. En los primeros ejemplos la aproximación del Arquitecto a proyectos con geometrías complejas no euclídeas aún se emplea sin precisión en la comunicación de la geometría ideada para su puesta en obra. Las técnicas constructivas obligan a asumir una tolerancia de desviación entre proyecto y obra y la previsión del comportamiento de esa geometría no permite asegurar su comportamiento final. No será hasta la introducción de herramientas CAD en el proceso de ideación arquitectónica cuando el Arquitecto se capacite para generar geometrías no representables de forma analógica. Sin embargo, la imposibilidad de trasladar la geometría proyectada a la praxis constructiva impedirá la plasmación de un proceso completo, salvo en las contadas ocasiones que se recogen en este texto. “El análisis cronológico de las referencias establece como aspecto esencial para la construcción de geometrías complejas la capacidad primero para definir y comunicar de forma precisa e inequívoca la geometría y después la capacidad de analizar el desempeño prestacional de dicha propuesta geométrica”. Establecida la primera conclusión, el capítulo de contexto histórico continúa enfocándose sobre la aplicación de las técnicas digitales en el Proceso de proyecto primero, y en la puesta en obra después. Los casos de estudio identifican claramente como un punto de inflexión para la generación de formas complejas mediante un software CAD el Museo Guggenheim de Bilbao en 1992. El motivo esencial para elegir este proyecto como el primer proyecto digital es el uso de la herramienta de definición digital de la geometría para su reproducción inequívoca en obra. “La revolución digital ha aportado al Arquitecto la posibilidad de abandonar las tipologías arquitectónicas basados en restricciones geométricas-constructivas. La aplicación de técnicas de fabricación digital ha permitido la capacidad de diseñar con independencia del sistema constructivo y libertad formal. En este nuevo contexto las prestaciones suponen los nuevos límites conceptuales, ya que el acceso y disposición de la información del comportamiento de las alternativas que cada geometría conlleva demanda del Arquitecto la jerarquización de los objetivos y la formulación en un conjunto coherente de parámetros”. Los proyectos que emplean herramientas digitales para la resolución de las distintas etapas del proceso proyectual se verán incrementados de forma exponencial desde 1992 hasta nuestros días. A pesar del importante auge de las técnicas de diseño asistido por ordenador el principal desafío sigue siendo la vinculación de las geometrías y materiales propuestos con las capacidades de las técnicas de manufactura y puesta en obra. El proceso de diseño para fabricación en un entorno digital es una tecnología madura en otras industrias como la aeroespacial o la automovilística, incluso la de productos de consumo y decoración, sin embargo en el sector de Construcción es un sistema inmaduro e inconexo. Las particularidades de la industria de la construcción aún no han sido abordadas en su totalidad y las propuestas de investigación realizadas en este ámbito se han centrado hasta 2015 en partes del proceso y no en el proceso total. “El principal obstáculo para la estandarización e implantación globalizada de un proceso digital desde el origen de la forma hasta la construcción es la inexistencia de un protocolo integrado que integre las limitaciones de fabricación, económicas y de puesta en obra junto a la evaluación de desempeño prestacional durante la fases iniciales de proyecto”. En el capítulo número 3 se estudian los distintos procesos de generación de la forma. Se propone una definición específica para el ámbito de la investigación de “forma” en el entendemos que se incluye la envolvente exterior y el conjunto organizativo de espacios interiores conectados. Por lo tanto no es excluyente del interior. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar y clasificar los procesos para la generación digital de formas en los distintos proyectos seleccionados como emblemáticos de cada tipología. Se concluye que la aproximación a este proceso es muy variada y compleja, con aplicación segregada y descoordinada entre los distintos agentes que han intervenir. En un proceso de generación formal analógico los parámetros que intervienen son en parte conscientes y en parte inconscientes o aprendidos. El Arquitecto sólo tiene control sobre la parte consciente de los parámetros a integrar en el diseño, de acuerdo a sus conocimientos y capacidades será capaz de manejar un número limitado de parámetros. La parte aprendida permanece en el inconsciente y dirige el proceso analógico, aportando prejuicios estéticos incorporados durante el proceso formativo y propio del entorno cultural. “El empleo de herramientas digitales basadas en la evaluación prestacional durante el proceso de selección formal permite al Arquitecto conocer “en tiempo real” el desempeño en el conjunto de prestaciones evaluadoras del conjunto de alternativas geométricas a la propuesta previamente definida por la intuición arquitectónica. El proceso definido no persigue identificar una solución óptima sino asistir al Arquitecto en el proceso de generación de la forma mediante la evaluación continua de los vectores direccionales más idóneos que el procedimiento generativo plantea”. La definición de complejidad en generación y producción de formas en relación con el proceso de diseño digital paramétrico global o integrado, es esencial para establecer un protocolo que optimice su gestión. “Se propone como definición de complejidad como factor resultante de multiplicar el número de agentes intervinientes por el número de parámetros e interacciones comunes que intervienen en el proceso de generación de la forma, dividido por la complejidad de intercambio de información digital desde el origen hasta la fase de fabricación y construcción”. Una vez analizados los procesos de generación digital de Arquitectura se propone identificar los parámetros geométricos que definen el proceso de Diseño digital, entendiendose por Diseño el proceso que engloba desde la proposición de una forma inicial basada en la intuición del Arquitecto, la generación y evaluación de variantes y posterior definición digital para producción, tanto de un objeto, un sistema o de la totalidad del Proyecto. En la actualidad el proceso de Diseño es discontinuo y lineal organizandose los parámetros por disciplinas en las que está estructurada las atribuciones profesionales en la industria de la construcción. Para simplificar la identificación y listado se han agrupado siguiendo estos grupos de conocimiento. Entendemos parametros invariables aquellos que son independientes de Tipologías arquitectónicas o que dependen del mismo proceso de generación de la Forma. “El listado de los parámetros que intervienen en un proceso de generación formal es una abstracción de una realidad compleja. La parametrización de las decisiones que intervienen en la selección de una forma determinada mediante “well defined problems” es imposible. El proceso que esta tesis describe entiende esta condición como un elemento que pone en valor el propio procedimiento generativo por la riqueza que la subjetividad que el equipo de diseño aporta”. La segunda parte esencial de esta investigación pretende extraer las restricciones propias del estado del arte de la fabricación digital para posteriormente incorporarlos en los procesos digitales de definición de la Forma arquitectónica. “La integración de las restricciones derivadas de las técnicas de fabricación y construcción digitales en el proceso de generación de formas desde el ámbito de la Arquitectura debe referirse a los condicionantes geométricos asociados a cada sistema constructivo, material y técnica de fabricación. La geometría es además el vínculo que permite asociar el conjunto de parámetros prestacionales seleccionados para un Proyecto con los sistemas de fabricación digital”. A estos condicionantes geométricos obtenidos del análisis de cada sistema de fabricación digital se les ha denominado “invariantes geométricos”. Bajo este término se engloban tanto límites dimensionales de fabricación, como materiales compatibles, tolerancias de manufactura e instalación y cualidades prestacionales asociadas. El objetivo de esta propuesta es emplear la geometría, herramienta fundamental y propia del Arquitecto, como nexo de unión entre el conjunto complejo y heterogéneo de parámetros previamente listados y analizados. Para ello se han simplificado en tablas específicas para cada parámetro prestacional los condicionantes geométricos que se derivan de los Sistemas de fabricación digital compatibles (ver apéndice 1). El estudio y evaluación de las capacidades y objetivos de las distintas plataformas de software disponibles y de las experiencias profesionales evaluadas en los proyectos presentados, permiten concluir que la propuesta de plataforma digital de diseño integral multi-paramétrico de formas arquitectónicas requiere de un protocolo de interoperatibilidad específico aún no universalmente establecido. Actualmente el enfoque de la estrategia para normalizar y universalizar el contexto normativo para regular la interoperatibilidad se centra en figura del gestor denominado “BIM manager”. Las atribuciones y roles de esta figura se enfocan a la gestión del continente y no del contenido (Definición de los formatos de intercambio, niveles de desarrollo (LOD) de los componentes o conjuntos constructivos, detección de interferencias y documentación del propio modelo). Siendo este ámbito un desarrollo necesario para la propuesta de universalización del sistema de diseño para fabricación digital integrado, la presente investigación aporta un organigrama y protocolo asociado. El protocolo: 1. Establece la responsabilidad de identificar y definir la Información que debe determinar el proceso de generación y desarrollo de la forma arquitectónica. 2. Define la forma digital apropiada para generar la geometría del Proyecto, incluyendo la precisión necesaria para cada componente y el nivel de detalle necesario para su exportación inequívoca al proceso de fabricación. 3. Define el tempo de cada etapa de diseño identificando un nivel de detalle acorde. 4. Acopla este organigrama dentro de las estructuras nuevas que se proponen en un entorno BIM para asegurar que no se producen solapes o vacíos con las atribuciones que se identifican para el BIM Manager. “El Arquitecto debe dirigir el protocolo de generación coordinada con los sistemas de producción digital para conseguir que la integración completa. El protocolo debe asistir al proceso de generación de forma mediante la evaluación del desempeño prestacional de cada variante en tiempo real. La comunicación entre herramientas digitales es esencial para permitir una ágil transmisión de información. Es necesario establecer un protocolo adaptado a los objetivos y las necesidades operativas de cada proyecto ya que la estandarización de un protocolo único no es posible”. Una decisión estratégica a la hora de planificar una plataforma de diseño digital común es establecer si vamos a optar por un Modelo digital único o diversos Modelos digitales federados. Cada uno de los modos de trabajo tiene fortalezas y debilidades, no obstante en el ámbito de investigación se ha concluido que un proceso integrado de Diseño que incorpore la evaluación prestacional y conceptual definida en el Capítulo 3, requiere necesariamente de varios modelos de software distintos que han de relacionarse entre sí mediante un protocolo de comunicación automatizado. Una plataforma basada en un modelo federado consiste en establecer un protocolo de comunicación entre los programas informáticos empleados por cada disciplina. En este modelo de operación cada equipo de diseño debe establecer las bases de comunicación en función del número y tipo de programas y procesos digitales a emplear. En esta investigación se propone un protocolo basado en los estándares de intercambio de información que estructura cualquier proceso de generación de forma paramétrico “La investigación establece el empleo de algoritmos evolutivos como el sistema actual óptimo para desarrollar un proceso de generación de formas basadas en la integración y coordinación de invariantes geométricos derivados de un conjunto de objetivos prestacionales y constructivos. No obstante, para la aplicación en el caso práctico realizado se ha podido verificar que la evaluación del desempeño aún no puede realizarse en una única herramienta y por lo tanto el proceso de selección de las variantes genéticas óptimas ha de ejecutarse de forma manual y acumulativa. El proceso debe realizarse de manera federada para la selección evolutiva de los invariantes geométricos dimensionales”. La evaluación del protocolo de integración y los condicionantes geométricos obtenidos como parámetros geométricos que controlan las posibles formas compatibles se realiza mediante su aplicación en un caso práctico. El ejercicio simula la colaboración multidisciplinar con modelos federados de plataformas distintas. La elección del tamaño y complejidad constructiva del proyecto se ha modulado para poder alcanzar un desarrollo completo de cada uno de los parámetros prestacionales seleccionados. Continuando con el mismo objetivo propuesto para los parámetros prestacionales, la tipología constructiva-estructural seleccionada para el ejercicio permite la aplicación la totalidad de invariantes geométricos asociados. El objetivo de este caso práctico es evaluar la capacidad alterar la forma inicialmente propuesta mediante la evaluación del desempeño prestacional de conjunto de variantes geométricas generadas a partir de un parámetro dimensional determinado. Para que este proceso tenga sentido, cada una de las variantes debe ser previamente validada conforme a las limitaciones geométricas propias de cada sistema de fabricación y montaje previstos. El interés de las conclusiones obtenidas es la identificación de una variante geométrica distante a la solución simétrica inicialmente como la solución óptima para el conjunto de parámetros seleccionados. Al tiempo se ha comprobado como la participación de un conjunto de parámetros multi-disciplinares que representan la realidad compleja de los objetivos arquitectónicos favorecen la aparición de variaciones genéticas con prestaciones mejoradas a la intuición inicial. “La herencias tipológicas suponen un límite para la imaginación de variantes formales al proceso de ideación arquitectónica. El ejercicio realizado demuestra que incluso en casos donde aparentemente la solución óptima aparenta ser obvia una variante aleatoria puede mejorar su desempeño global. La posibilidad de conocer las condiciones geométricas de las técnicas de fabricación digital compatibles con el conjunto de parámetros seleccionados por el Arquitecto para dirigir el proceso asegura que los resultados del algoritmo evolutivo empleado sean constructivamente viables. La mejora de imaginación humana con la aportación de geometrías realmente construibles supone el objetivo último de esta tesis”. ABSTRACT Architectural form generation process is shifting from analogical to digital. Digital technology has changed the way we design empowering Architects and Engineers to precisely define any complex geometry envisioned. At the same time, the construction industry, following aeronautical and automotive industries, is implementing digital manufacturing techniques to improve efficiency and quality. Consequently construction complexity will no longer be related to geometry complexity and it is associated to coordination with digital manufacturing capacities. Unfortunately it is agreed that non-standard geometries, even when proposed with performance optimization criteria, are only suitable for projects with non-restricted budgets. Furthemore, the lack of coordinated exportation protocol and geometry management between design and construction is avoiding the globalization of emergence process in built projects Present research first objective is to identify exclusive form-generation parameters related to digital manufacturing geometrical restraints. The intention was to use geometry as the form-generation tool and integrate the digital manufacturing capacities at first stages of the project. The first chapter of this text describes the investigation historical context focusing on the influence between accurate geometry definition at non-standard forms and its construction. At first examples of non-Euclidean geometries built the communication between design and construction were based on analogical partial and imprecise documentation. Deficient communication leads to geometry adaptation on site leaving the final form uncontrolled by the Architect. Computer Aided Design enable Architects to define univocally complex geometries that previously where impossible to communicate. “The univocally definition of the Form, and communication between design and construction is essential for complex geometry Projects”. The second chapter is focused on digital technologies application in form finding process and site construction. The case studies selected identifies a clear inflexion node at 1992 with the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao. The singularity of this project was the use of Aeronautics software to define digitally the external envelope complex geometry to enable the contractor to build it. “The digital revolution has given the Architect the capacity to design buildings beyond the architectural archetypes driven by geometric-constructive limitations. The application of digital manufacturing techniques has enabled a free-form construction without geometrical limitations. In this new context performance shall be the responsible to set new conceptual boundaries, since the behavior of each possible geometry can be compare and analyze beforehand. The role of the Architect is to prioritize the performance and architectural objectives of each project in a complete and coherent set of parameters”. Projects using digital tools for solving various stages of the design process were increased exponentially since 1992 until today. Despite the significant rise of the techniques of computer-aided design the main challenge remains linking geometries and materials proposed at each design with the capabilities of digital manufacturing techniques. Design for manufacturing in a digital environment is a mature technology in other industries such as aerospace and automotive, including consumer products and decoration, but in the construction sector is an immature and disjointed system. The peculiarities of the construction industry have not yet been addressed in its entirety and research proposals made in this area until 2015 have focused in separate parts of the process and not the total process. “The main obstacle to global standardization and implementation of a complete digital process from the form-finding to construction site is the lack of an integrated protocol that integrates manufacturing, economic and commissioning limitations, together with the performance evaluation of each possible form”. The different form generation processes are studied at chapter number 3. At the introduction of this chapter there is a specific definition of "form" for the research field. Form is identified with the outer envelope geometry, including the organizational set of connected indoor spaces connected to it. Therefore it is not exclusive of the interior. The aim of this study is to analyze and classify the main digital form generation processes using different selected projects as emblematic of each type. The approach to this process is complex, with segregated and uncoordinated different actors have to intervene application. In an analogical form-generation process parameters involved are partly conscious and partly unconscious or learned. The architect has control only over limited part of the parameters to be integrated into the design, according to their knowledge and. There is also a learned aesthetical prejudice that leads the form generation process to a specific geometry leaving the performance and optimization criteria apart from the decision making process. “Using performance evaluation digital tools during form finding process provides real-time comparative information to the Architect enabling geometry selection based on its performance. The generative form generation process described at this document does not ambition to identify the optimum geometry for each set of parameters. The objective is to provide quick information at each generation of what direction is most favorable for the performance parameters selected”. Manufacturing complexity definition in relation to a global and integral process of digital design for manufacture is essential for establishing an efficient managing protocol. “The definition of complexity associated to design for production in Architecture is proposed as the factor between number of different agents involved in the process by the number of interactions required between them, divided by the percentage of the interchange of information that is standardized and proof of information loss”. Design in architecture is a multi-objective process by definition. Therefore, addressing generation process linked to a set of non-coherent parameters requires the selection of adequate generative algorithm and the interaction of the architect. During the second half of the twentieth century and early twenty-first century it have been developed various mathematical algorithms for multi-parametric digital design. Heuristic algorithms are the most adequate algorithms for architectural projects due to its nature. The advantage of such algorithms is the ability to efficiently handle large scale optimization cases where a large number of design objectives and variables are involved. These generative processes do not pursue the optimum solution, in fact it will be impossible to proof with such algorithm. This is not a problem in architectural design where the final goal is to guide the form finding process towards a better performance within the initial direction provided by the architect. This research has focused on genetic algorithms due to its capacity to generate geometric alternatives in multiple directions and evaluate the fitness against a set of parameters specified in a single process. "Any protocol seeks to achieve standardization. The design to manufacturing protocol aims to provide a coordinated and coherent form generation process between a set of design parameters and the geometrical requirements of manufacturing technique. The protocol also provides an information exchange environment where there is a communication path and the level of information is ensured. The research is focused on the process because it is considered that each project will have its own singularities and parameters but the process will stay the same. Again the development of a specific tool is not a goal for the research, the intention is to provide an open source protocol that is valid for any set of tools”. Once the digital generation processes are being analized and classified, the next step is to identify the geometric parameters that define the digital design process. The definition of design process is including from the initial shape proposal based on the intuition of the architect to the generation, evaluation, selection and production of alternatives, both of an object , system or of the entire project . The current design process in Architecture is discontinuous and linear, dividing the process in disciplines in which the construction industry is structured. The proposal is to unify all relevant parameters in one process. The parameters are listed in groups of knowledge for internal classification but the matrix used for parameter relationship determination are combined. “A multi-parameter determination of the form-finding process is the integration all the measurable decisions laying behind Architect intuition. It is not possible to formulate and solve with an algorithm the design in Architecture. It is not the intention to do so with the proposal of this research. The process aims to integrate in one open protocol a selection of parameters by using geometry as common language. There is no optimum solution for any step of the process, the outcome is an evaluation of performance of all the form variations to assist the Architect for the selection of the preferable solution for the project”. The research follows with the geometrical restrictions of today Digital manufacturing techniques. Once determined it has been integrated in the form-finding process. “Digital manufacturing techniques are integrated in the form-finding process using geometry as common language. Geometric restraints define the boundary for performance parametric form-finding process. Geometrical limitations are classified by material and constructive system”. Choose between one digital model or several federate models is a strategic decision at planning a digital design for manufacturing protocol. Each one of the working models have strengths and weakens, nevertheless for the research purposes federated models are required to manage the different performance evaluation software platforms. A protocol based on federated models shall establish a communication process between software platforms and consultants. The manager shall integrate each discipline requirements defining the communication basis. The proposed protocol is based on standards on information exchange with singularities of the digital manufacturing industry. “The research concludes evolutionary algorithms as current best system to develop a generative form finding process based on the integration and coordination of a set of performance and constructive objectives. However, for application in professional practice and standardize it, the performance evaluation cannot be done in only one tool and therefore the selection of optimal genetic variants must be run in several iterations with a cumulative result. Consequently, the evaluation process within the geometrical restraints shall be carried out with federated models coordinated following the information exchange protocol”. The integration protocol and geometric constraints evaluation is done by applying in a practical case study. The exercise simulates multidisciplinary collaboration across software platforms with federated models. The choice of size and construction complexity of the project has been modulated to achieve the full development of each of the parameters selected. Continuing with the same objective proposed for the performance parameters the constructive and structural type selected for the exercise allows the application all geometric invariants associated to the set of parameters selected. The main goal of the case study is to proof the capacity of the manufacturing integrated form finding process to generate geometric alternatives to initial form with performance improved and following the restrictions determined by the compatible digital manufacturing technologies. The process is to be divided in consecutive analysis each one limited by the geometrical conditions and integrated in a overall evaluation. The interest of this process is the result of a non-intuitive form that performs better than a double symmetrical form. The second conclusion is that one parameter evaluation alone will not justify the exploration of complex geometry variations, but when there is a set of parameters with multidisciplinary approach then the less obvious solution emerge as the better performing form. “Architectural typologies impose limitation for Architects capacity to imagine formal variations. The case study and the research conclusions proof that even in situations where the intuitive solution apparently is the optimum solution, random variations can perform better when integrating all parameters evaluation. The capacity of foreseing the geometrical properties linking each design parameter with compatible manufacturing technologies ensure the result of the form-finding process to be constructively viable. Finally, the propose of a complete process where the geometry alternatives are generated beyond the Architect intuition and performance evaluated by a set of parameters previously selected and coordinated with the manufacturing requirements is the final objective of the Thesis”.

Dynamic visual servo control of a 4-axis joint tool to track image trajectories during machining complex shapes

A large part of the new generation of computer numerical control systems has adopted an architecture based on robotic systems. This architecture improves the implementation of many manufacturing processes in terms of flexibility, efficiency, accuracy and velocity. This paper presents a 4-axis robot tool based on a joint structure whose primary use is to perform complex machining shapes in some non-contact processes. A new dynamic visual controller is proposed in order to control the 4-axis joint structure, where image information is used in the control loop to guide the robot tool in the machining task. In addition, this controller eliminates the chaotic joint behavior which appears during tracking of the quasi-repetitive trajectories required in machining processes. Moreover, this robot tool can be coupled to a manipulator robot in order to form a multi-robot platform for complex manufacturing tasks. Therefore, the robot tool could perform a machining task using a piece grasped from the workspace by a manipulator robot. This manipulator robot could be guided by using visual information given by the robot tool, thereby obtaining an intelligent multi-robot platform controlled by only one camera.

Augmented and Virtual Reality techniques for footwear

The use of 3D imaging techniques has been early adopted in the footwear industry. In particular, 3D imaging could be used to aid commerce and improve the quality and sales of shoes. Footwear customization is an added value aimed not only to improve product quality, but also consumer comfort. Moreover, customisation implies a new business model that avoids the competition of mass production coming from new manufacturers settled mainly in Asian countries. However, footwear customisation implies a significant effort at different levels. In manufacturing, rapid and virtual prototyping is required; indeed the prototype is intended to become the final product. The whole design procedure must be validated using exclusively virtual techniques to ensure the feasibility of this process, since physical prototypes should be avoided. With regard to commerce, it would be desirable for the consumer to choose any model of shoes from a large 3D database and be able to try them on looking at a magic mirror. This would probably reduce costs and increase sales, since shops would not require storing every shoe model and the process of trying several models on would be easier and faster for the consumer. In this paper, new advances in 3D techniques coming from experience in cinema, TV and games are successfully applied to footwear. Firstly, the characteristics of a high-quality stereoscopic vision system for footwear are presented. Secondly, a system for the interaction with virtual footwear models based on 3D gloves is detailed. Finally, an augmented reality system (magic mirror) is presented, which is implemented with low-cost computational elements that allow a hypothetical customer to check in real time the goodness of a given virtual footwear model from an aesthetical point of view.

Manufacturing Europe's Future. Bruegel Blueprint 21, 2 October 2013

‘Industrial policy is back!’ This is the message given in the European Commission’s October 2012 communication on industrial policy (COM (2012) 582 final), which seeks to reverse the declining role of the manufacturing industry, and increase its share of European Union GDP from about 16 percent currently to above 20 percent. Historical evidence suggests that the goal is unlikely to be achieved. Manufacturing’s share of GDP has decreased around the world over the last 30 years. Paradoxically, this relative decline has been a reflection of manufacturing’s strength. Higher productivity growth in manufacturing than in the economy overall resulted in relative decline. A strategy to reverse this trend and move to an industrial share of above 20 percent might therefore risk undermining the original strength of industry – higher productivity growth. This Blueprint therefore takes a different approach. It starts by looking in depth into the manufacturing sector and how it is developing. It emphasises the extent to which European industry has become integrated with other parts of the economy, in particular with the increasingly specialised services sector, and how both sectors depend on each other. It convincingly argues that industrial activity is increasingly spread through global value chains. As a result, employment in the sector has increasingly become highly skilled, while those parts of production for which high skill levels are not needed have been shifted to regions with lower labour costs.

Antitrust risk in EU manufacturing: A sector-level ranking. Bruegel Working Paper 2014/07, July 2014

The object of this paper is twofold: to provide a broad descriptive analysis of the risk of collusive behaviour throughout Europe in the manufacturing sector; and to identify those manufacturing sectors in which the European Commission has been more active in the past in its capacity of antitrust authority.

Costs and problems of completing the interstate highway system; report to the Congress.

Mode of access: Internet.

Cost and economic impact of tire reserve load requirements. Final report.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C.

Research and development program for highway construction engineering management. Final report.

Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.

National apprenticeship standards for Automotive Service Councils.

Mode of access: Internet.

Productivity and costs.

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