Development and testing of an evaluation procedure for commercial manure additive products.

Manure additive products can be used to reduce odour emissions (OE) from livestock farms. The standardised evaluation of these manure additive products under specific farm conditions is important. In this study, the efficacy of a manure additive (WonderTreat(TM), CKLS, Inc., Hong-Kong) was assessed under Australian conditions utilising a combination of laboratory and field-scale evaluation techniques. As a first step, the efficacy of the manure additive was assessed in a laboratory-scale trial using a series of uniformly managed digesters and standard odour, liquor ammonia and hydrogen sulphide concentration measurement procedures. This showed that the addition of WonderTreat(TM) at the 'low dose rate' (LDR) (102.6 g m-2) used during the trial significantly, but only marginally (30%; P = 0.02) reduced the OE rate (mean 13.9 OU m-2 s-1) of anaerobic pig liquor relative to an untreated control (UC) (19.9 OU m-2 s-1). However, the 'high dose rate' (HDR) (205.3 g m-2) also assessed during the trial preformed similarly (19.7 OU m-2 s-1) to the UC. No statistically significant difference in the concentrations of a range of measured water quality variables at the 5% level was observed between the treatments or controls digesters. As a second step, a field-scale assessment of the manure additive was undertaken at a commercial piggery. Two piggery manure lagoons (each with approximately 2500 m2 surface area) were included in the study; one was treated with WonderTreat(TM) while the other was used as control. The efficacy of the treatment was assessed using olfactometric evaluation of odour samples collected from the surface of the pond using a dynamic wind tunnel and ancillary equipment. No statistically significant reduction in OE rate could be demonstrated (P = 0.35), partially due to the limited number of samples taken during the assessment. However, there was a numerical reduction in the average OE rate of the treatment pond (29 OU m-2 s-1 at 1 m s-1) compared to the control lagoon (38 OU m-2 s-1 at 1 m s-1).

Characterization of commercial cultivars and naturalized genotypes of Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze in Australia

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze, known as "St Augustinegrass" in the USA and "buffalo grass" in Australia, is a widely used turfgrass species in subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Throughout its range, S. secundatum encompasses a great deal of genetic diversity, which can be exploited in future breeding programs. To understand better the range of genetic variation in Australia, morphological-agronomic classification and DNA profiling were used to characterize and group 17 commercial cultivars and 18 naturalized genotypes collected from across Australia. Historically, there have been two main sources of S. secundatum in Austalia: one a reputedly sterile triploid race (the so-called Cape deme) from South Africa now represented by the Australian Common group naturalized in all Australian states; and the other a "normal" fertile diploid race naturalized north from Sydney along the NSW coast, which is referred to here as the Australian Commercial group because it has been the source of most of the new cultivars recently developed in Australia. Over the past 30 years, some US cultivars have also been introduced and commercialized; these are again "normal" fertile diploids, but from a group distinclty different from the Australian Commercial genotypes as shown by both DNA analysis and grouping based on 28 morphological-agronomic characteristics. The implications for future breeding within S. secundatum in Australia are discussed.

Commercial application of polychaete sand filters for wastewater remediation and broodstock feeds

Summary Prototype sand-worm filtration beds were constructed at two prawn farms and one fish farm to assess and demonstrate their polychaete (marine worm) production and wastewater remediation capacities at semi-commercial scale. Wastewater treatment properties were monitored and worms produced were assessed and either sold for bait or used by the farms’ hatcheries as broodstock (prawn or fish breeder) feed. More than 34 megalitres of prawn- and fish-pond water was beneficially treated in the 116-319-d trial. The design of the polychaete-assisted sand filters (PASFs) constructed at each farm affected their water handling rates, which on average ranged from 315 to 1000 L m-2 d-1 at the three farms. A low profile design incorporating shallow bunded ponds made from polyethylene liner and timber stakes provided the easiest method of construction. This simple design applied at broad scale facilitated the highest quantities of treated water and the greatest worm production. Designs with higher sides increased the head pressure above the sand bed surface, thus increasing the amount of water that could be treated each day. Most water qualities were affected in a similar way to that demonstrated in the previous tank trials: dissolved oxygen, pH, total suspended solids and chlorophyll a levels were all consistently significantly lowered as pond water percolated through the sand bed, and dissolved forms of nitrogen and phosphorus were marginally increased on several occasions. However, unlike the previous smaller-scale tank trials, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) levels were both significantly lowered by these larger-scale PASFs. The reasons for this are still unclear and require further research. Maximum TN and TP removals detected in the trial were 48.8% and 67.5%, respectively, and average removals (in unfed beds) at the three farms ranged from 20.0 to 27.7% for TN and from 22.8 to 40.8% for TP. Collectively, these results demonstrate the best suspended solids, chlorophyll and macronutrient removal capacities so far reported for any mariculture wastewater treatment methodology to date. Supplemental feeding of PASFs with fish meal was also investigated at one farm as a potential means of increasing their polychaete biomass production. Whilst fed beds produced higher biomass (152 ± 35 g m-2) compared with unfed beds (89 ± 17 g m-2) after 3.7 months of operation, the low number of replicates (2) prevented statistically significant differences from being demonstrated for either growth or survival. At harvest several months later, worm biomass production was estimated to be similar to, or in slight excess of, previously reported production levels (300-400 g m-2). Several qualities of filtered water appear to have been affected by supplemental feeding: it appeared to marginally lower dissolved oxygen and pH levels, and increased the TN and TP levels though not so much to eliminate significant beneficial water treatment effects. Periodic sampling during an artificial-tide demonstrated the tendency for treated-water quality changes during the first hour of filtration. Total nitrogen and ammonia peaked early in the tidal flow and then fell to more stable levels for the remainder of the filtration period. Other dissolved nutrients also showed signs of this sand-bed-flushing pattern, and dissolved oxygen tended to climb during the first hour and become more stable thereafter. These patterns suggest that the routine sampling of treated water undertaken at mid-inflow during the majority of the wider study would likely have overestimated the levels of TN and dissolved nutrients discharged from the beds, and hence underestimated the PASFs treatment efficacies in this regard. Analyses of polychaete biomass collected from each bed in the study revealed that the worms were free from contamination with the main prawn viruses that would create concerns for their feeding to commercial prawn broodstock in Australia. Their documented proximal and nutritional contents also provide a guide for hatchery operators when using live or frozen stock. Their dry matter content ranged from 18.3 to 22.3%, ash ranged from 10.2 to 14.0%, gross energy from 20.2 to 21.5 MJ kg-1, and fat from 5.0 to 9.2%. Their cholesterol levels ranged from 0.86 to 1.03% of dry matter, whilst total phospholipids range from 0.41 to 0.72%. Thirty-one different fatty acids were present at detectable (≥0.005% of dry matter) levels in the sampled worm biomass. Palmitic acid was by far the most prevalent fatty acid detected (1.21 ± 0.18%), followed by eicosapentaenoic (EPA) (0.48 ± 0.03%), stearic (0.46 ± 0.04%), vaccenic (0.38 ± 0.05%), adrenic (0.35 ± 0.02%), docosadienoic (0.28 ± 0.02%), arachidonic (AA) (0.22 ± 0.01%), palmitoleic (0.20 ± 0.04%) and 23 other fatty acids with average contents of less than 0.2% of dry matter. Supplemental feeding with fish meal at one farm appeared to increase the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content of the worms considerably, and modify the average AA : EPA : DHA from 1.0 : 2.7 : 0.3 to 1.0 : 2.0 : 1.1. Consistent with previous results, the three most heavily represented amino acids in the dry matter of sampled worms were glutamic acid (8.5 ± 0.2%), aspartic acid (5.5 ± 0.1%) and glycine (4.9 ± 0.5%). These biomass content results suggest that worms produced in PASF systems are well suited to feeding to prawn and fish broodstock, and provide further strong evidence of the potential to modify their contents for specific nutritional uses. The falling wild-fishery production of marine bloodworms in Queensland is typical of diminishing polychaete resources world-wide and demonstrates the need to develop sustainable production methods here and overseas. PASF systems offer the dual benefits of wastewater treatment for environmental management and increased productivity through a valuable secondary crop grown exclusively on waste nutrients.

BA09025 Commercial feasibility of banana waste utilization in food industry

As a response to the HAL banana call, this project will look to further utilization of bananas not suitable for the retail market.

Utilisation of local ingredients in commercial pig feeds

The long-term competitiveness of the both the Vietnamese feed and pig production industries are constrained and under pressure whilst the industry is dependent on the use of imported feed ingredients in diets for animal production. These cost pressures are a result of import taxes, transport costs, currency fluctuations and feed supply limitations. By undertaking studies on available resources which are currently under-utilised and with potential as local feeds, we can prove their suitability for use as feedstuffs in pig diets and as replacements for imported feed ingredients. In undertaking this process we can lower feeding costs for pig production in Vietnam by the use of local feeds which are cheaper, generate new industries in Vietnam harvesting or processing these feeds and increase the incomes of Vietnamese workers who are involved in producing these by-products. Our project has shown that rubber seed, when processed correctly to lower the hydrogen cyanide content, is a safe and suitable protein meal feedstuff for use in pig diets with the potential to replace significant quantities of imported soybean and fishmeal in Vietnamese pig diets as long as diets are balanced for any amino acid shortfalls. Our peanut studies have shown that use of binders can help alleviate pig production problems with aflatoxin content in peanut meals. Further work is needed to characterise the fate of the bound aflatoxin to see if there is any meat residue risk. Cassava residue is a resultant by-product from starch extraction in both large and small cassava processing factories. Sub-samples from these two mill types were collected and evaluated for residue HCN. Analyses has shown that the processing and sun drying results in a product with relatively consistent low HCN content. Chemical analyses also reveal that significant residual starch also remains in this by-product. Digestibility studies and pig performance feeding studies have shown that cassava residue can be included in diets at 30% with no adverse effect, although the higher fibre content of this product means that strategically, cassava residue is more suitably used in finisher and sow diets. Research has examined the digestible energy content of a number of sunflower meal types available in Australia and identified major differences in their energy value based on processing, additionally, amino acid analysis has shown a significantly lower lysine content than previous reported. We also examined the digestible energy content of a number of Australian stylo forage legume harvest batches and identified the differences in their energy value based on age/harvest time of the forage legume. Analysis results of various stylo cuts showed that the early cut stylo has a higher starch content and lower fibre fraction content than observed in late and recut stylo which were allowed to grow longer. As a result the faecal digestible energy content was higher for the early cut stylo than for the subsequent cut stylo material which had been allowed to become woody. The results have shown that feeding of stylo meal does provide some nutritive value to the pig with increased energy and nitrogen supply, with a portion of the nitrogen presented which the pig is able to retain. Based on nutrient and fibre content stylo could have a useful role in sow feeding and satiety under non-stall housing situations. With increasing Vietnamese investment in rubber production seen with larger areas under plantations the amounts of rubber seed available for animal feeding will grow significantly over the next 15 years and the importance of the by-product ie rubber seed meal as a protein source in diets for Vietnamese pigs.

Development of commercial application of an avocado fruit robustness test

Fruit quality is one of the major factors limiting growth in avocado retail sales. Avocado growers are often unaware of their end-use fruit quality since quality problems only manifest upon fruit ripening and growers receive limited feedback from the supply chain. If growers were aware of their expected fruit quality they would be equipped to make better marketing decisions and if necessary to take remedial actions to improve their fruit quality. Avotest is being developed as a quick and easy method of determining expected end-use fruit quality before the start of the commercial fruit harvest. The test aims at distinguishing between blocks with robust fruit and those with less robust fruit. The test could also be used to predict the resulting fruit quality after the implementation of new farming practices.

Innovative management of herbicide resistant weeds - seed banks and soil biology

The project will evaluate seed bank depletion of key northern herbicide resistant weeds under different environments, cropping systems, crop agronomies and non-chemical control tactics. The project will also evaluate soil biology and seed bank relationships to explain differences in seed bank persistence.

Texture dependent stress corrosion failure of commercial titanium sheets in bromine-methanol solution

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) characteristics of agr-titanium sheets in a bromine-methanol solution have been studied in the annealed and cold-rolled conditions using longitudinal and transverse specimens. The times to failure for annealed longitudinal specimens were longer than those for similarly tested transverse specimens. The cold-rolled specimens developed resistance to SCC, but failed by cleavage when notched, unlike the intergranular separation in annealed titanium. The apparent activation energy was found to be texture dependent and was in the range 30 to 51 kJ mol–1 for annealed titanium, and 15kJ mol–1 for cold-rolled titanium. The dependence of SCC behaviour on the texture is related to the changes in the crack initiation times. These are caused by changes in the passivation and repassivation characteristics of the particular thickness plane. The thickness planes are identified with the help of X-ray pole figures obtained on annealed and cold-rolled material. On the basis of the activation energy and the electrochemical measurements, the mechanism of SCC in annealed titanium is identified to be the one involving stress-aided anodic dissolution. On the other hand, the results on the cold-rolled titanium are in support of the hydrogen embrittlement mechanism consisting of hydride precipitation. The cleavage planes identified from the texture data match with the reported habit planes for hydride formation.

Commercial products from bio-active extractives in cypress milling residues.

Extractive components obtained from milling residues of white cypress were studied for chemical identity and bioactivity with a view to developing a commercial use for these components, thus increasing the value of the residues and improving the economics of cypress sawn wood production. Extracts obtained by solvent or steam extraction techniques from cypress sawdust were each fractionated by a range of techniques into groups of similar compounds. Crude extracts and fractions were screened against a range of agricultural pests and diseases, including two fungi, subterranean termites, fruit spotting bugs, two-spotted mites, thrips, heliothis, banana scab moths, silverleaf whiteflies, cattle tick adults and larvae, and ruminant gastrointestinal nematodes. Additional screening was undertaken where encouraging results were achieved, for two-spotted mites, thrips, silverleaf whiteflies, cattle tick adults and ruminant gastrointestinal nematodes. After considering degrees of efficacy against, and economic importance of, the agricultural pests, and likely production costs of extracts and fractions, the crude extract (oil) produced by steam distillation was chosen for further study against silverleaf whitefly. A useful degree of control was achievable when this oil was applied to tomato or eggplant at 0.1%, with much less harmful effects on a beneficial insect. Activity of the oil against silverleaf whitefly was undiminished 3.5 years after it was generated. There was little benefit from supplementing the extract with co-formulated paraffinic oil. From the steam distilled oil, fifty-five compounds were characterised, thirty-five compounds representing 92.478 % of the oil, with guaiol (20.8%) and citronellic acid (15.9%) most abundant. These two compounds, and a group of oxygenated compounds containing bulnesol and a range of eudesmols, were found to account for most of the activity against silverleaf whitefly. This application was recommended for first progression to commercialisation.

Preference and performance of Diachasmimorpha kraussii (Fullaway) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) on five commercial fruit species

Diachasmimorpha kraussii is a polyphagous endoparasitoid of dacine fruit flies. The fruit fly hosts of D. krausii, in turn, attack a wide range of fruits and vegetables. The role that fruits play in host selection behaviour of D. kraussii has not been previously investigated. This study examines fruit preference of D. kraussii through a laboratory choice-test trial and field fruit sampling. In the laboratory trial, oviposition preference and offspring performance measures (sex ratio, developmental time, body length, hind tibial length) of D. kraussii were investigated with respect to five fruit species [Psidium guajava L. (guava), Prunis persica L. (peach), Malus domestica Borkh. (apple), Pyrus communis L. (pear) and Citrus sinensis L. (orange)], and two fruit fly species (Bactrocera jarvisi and B. tryoni). Diachasmimorpha kraussii responded to infested fruit of all fruit types in both choice and no-choice tests, but showed stronger preference for guava and peach in the choice tests irrespective of the species of fly larvae within the fruit. The wasp did not respond to uninfested fruit. The offspring performance measures differed in a non-consistent fashion between the fruit types, but generally wasp offspring performed better in guava, peach and orange. The offspring sex ratio, except for one fruit/fly combination (B. jarvisi in apple), was always female biased. The combined results suggest that of the five fruits tested, guava and peach are the best fruit substrates for D. krausii. Field sampling indicated a non-random use of available, fruit fly infested fruit by D. kraussii. Fruit fly maggots within two fruit species, Plachonia careya and Terminalia catappa, had disproportionately higher levels of D. krausii parasitism than would be expected based on the proportion of different infested fruit species sampled, or levels of fruit fly infestation within those fruit.

Persistence of bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypifolia L.) soil seed banks

Bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypifolia L.) is an invasive shrub that adversely impacts agricultural and natural systems of northern Australia. While several techniques are available to control bellyache bush, depletion of soil seed banks is central to its management. A 10-year study determined the persistence of intact and ant-discarded bellyache bush seeds buried in shade cloth packets at six depths (ranging from 0 to 40 cm) under both natural rainfall and rainfall-excluded conditions. A second study monitored changes in seedling emergence over time, to provide an indication of the natural rate of seed bank depletion at two sites (rocky and heavy clay) following the physical removal of all bellyache bush plants. Persistence of seed in the burial trial varied depending on seed type, rainfall conditions and burial depth. No viable seeds of bellyache bush remained after 72 months irrespective of seed type under natural rainfall conditions. When rainfall was excluded seeds persisted for much longer, with a small portion (0.4%) of ant-discarded seeds still viable after 120 months. Seed persistence was prolonged (> 96 months to decline to < 1% viability) at all burial depths under rainfall-excluded conditions. In contrast, under natural rainfall, surface located seeds took twice as long (70 months) to decline to 1% viability compared with buried seeds (35 months). No seedling emergence was observed after 58 months and 36 months at the rocky and heavy clay soil sites, respectively. These results suggest that the required duration of control programs on bellyache bush may vary due to the effect of biotic and abiotic factors on persistence of soil seed banks.

Effectiveness of commercial harvesting in controlling feral-pig populations

Context. The feral pig (Sus scrofa) is a widespread pest species in Australia and its populations are commonly controlled to reduce damage to agriculture and the environment. Feral pigs are also a resource and harvested for commercial export as game meat. Although many other control techniques are used, commercial harvesting of feral pigs is often encouraged by land managers, because it carries little or no cost and is widely perceived to control populations. Aims. To use feral-pig harvesting records, density data and simple harvest models to examine the effectiveness of commercial harvesting to reduce feral-pig populations. Methods. The present study examined commercial harvest off-take on six sites (246-657 km2) in southern Queensland, and 20 large blocks (~2-6000 km2) throughout Queensland. The harvest off-take for each site was divided by monthly or average annual population size, determined by aerial survey, to calculate monthly and annual harvest rates.Asimple harvest model assuming logistic population growth was used to determine the likely effectiveness of harvesting. Key results. Commercial harvest rates were generally low (<~20%) and are likely to provide only modest reductions in population size. Additionally, harvest rates capable of substantial reductions (>50%) in long-term population size were isolated occurrences and not maintained across sites and years. High harvest rates were observed only at low densities. Although these harvest rates may be sufficiently high to hold populations at low densities, the population is likely to escape this entrapment following a flush in food supply or a reduction in harvest effort. Implications. Our results demonstrated that, at current harvest rates, commercial harvesting is ineffective for the landscape-scale control of feral-pig populations. Unless harvest rates can be significantly increased, commercial harvesting should be used as a supplement to, rather than as a substitute for, other damage-control techniques.