Human Preferences for Symmetry: Subjective Experience, Cognitive Conflict and Cortical Brain Activity

This study examines the links between human perceptions, cognitive biases and neural processing of symmetrical stimuli. While preferences for symmetry have largely been examined in the context of disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism spectrum disorders, we examine various these phenomena in non-clinical subjects and suggest that such preferences are distributed throughout the typical population as part of our cognitive and neural architecture. In Experiment 1, 82 young adults reported on the frequency of their obsessive-compulsive spectrum behaviors. Subjects also performed an emotional Stroop or variant of an Implicit Association Task (the OC-CIT) developed to assess cognitive biases for symmetry. Data not only reveal that subjects evidence a cognitive conflict when asked to match images of positive affect with asymmetrical stimuli, and disgust with symmetry, but also that their slowed reaction times when asked to do so were predicted by reports of OC behavior, particularly checking behavior. In Experiment 2, 26 participants were administered an oddball Event-Related Potential task specifically designed to assess sensitivity to symmetry as well as the OC-CIT. These data revealed that reaction times on the OC-CIT were strongly predicted by frontal electrode sites indicating faster processing of an asymmetrical stimulus (unparallel lines) relative to a symmetrical stimulus (parallel lines). The results point to an overall cognitive bias linking disgust with asymmetry and suggest that such cognitive biases are reflected in neural responses to symmetrical/asymmetrical stimuli.

Multilevel Latent Class Models with Dirichlet Mixing Distribution

Latent class analysis (LCA) and latent class regression (LCR) are widely used for modeling multivariate categorical outcomes in social sciences and biomedical studies. Standard analyses assume data of different respondents to be mutually independent, excluding application of the methods to familial and other designs in which participants are clustered. In this paper, we develop multilevel latent class model, in which subpopulation mixing probabilities are treated as random effects that vary among clusters according to a common Dirichlet distribution. We apply the Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm for model fitting by maximum likelihood (ML). This approach works well, but is computationally intensive when either the number of classes or the cluster size is large. We propose a maximum pairwise likelihood (MPL) approach via a modified EM algorithm for this case. We also show that a simple latent class analysis, combined with robust standard errors, provides another consistent, robust, but less efficient inferential procedure. Simulation studies suggest that the three methods work well in finite samples, and that the MPL estimates often enjoy comparable precision as the ML estimates. We apply our methods to the analysis of comorbid symptoms in the Obsessive Compulsive Disorder study. Our models' random effects structure has more straightforward interpretation than those of competing methods, thus should usefully augment tools available for latent class analysis of multilevel data.

Pachydermodactyly--just a sign of emotional distress

Pachydermodactyly (PDD) is a benign, asymptomatic soft tissue swelling affecting the skin of the lateral aspects of the proximal interphalangeal joints of the fingers II-IV, mostly in young adolescent males, and could be interpreted as a consequence of tic-like behaviour as an obsessive-compulsive disorder in male adolescents. The differential diagnosis includes numerous diseases; a rapid clinical recognition of PDD would avoid many useless and expensive diagnostic tests. There is no effective medical treatment for PDD, but discontinuation of the tic-like mechanical traumatisation generally leads to a marked amelioration of the finger swelling. In this article we review the world literature, which contains 87 additional cases on this topic.

A three-dimensional histological atlas of the human basal ganglia. II. Atlas deformation strategy and evaluation in deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease

OBJECT: The localization of any given target in the brain has become a challenging issue because of the increased use of deep brain stimulation to treat Parkinson disease, dystonia, and nonmotor diseases (for example, Tourette syndrome, obsessive compulsive disorders, and depression). The aim of this study was to develop an automated method of adapting an atlas of the human basal ganglia to the brains of individual patients. METHODS: Magnetic resonance images of the brain specimen were obtained before extraction from the skull and histological processing. Adaptation of the atlas to individual patient anatomy was performed by reshaping the atlas MR images to the images obtained in the individual patient using a hierarchical registration applied to a region of interest centered on the basal ganglia, and then applying the reshaping matrix to the atlas surfaces. RESULTS: Results were evaluated by direct visual inspection of the structures visible on MR images and atlas anatomy, by comparison with electrophysiological intraoperative data, and with previous atlas studies in patients with Parkinson disease. The method was both robust and accurate, never failing to provide an anatomically reliable atlas to patient registration. The registration obtained did not exceed a 1-mm mismatch with the electrophysiological signatures in the region of the subthalamic nucleus. CONCLUSIONS: This registration method applied to the basal ganglia atlas forms a powerful and reliable method for determining deep brain stimulation targets within the basal ganglia of individual patients.

Eye Movement Measures of Cognitive Control in Children with Tourette Syndrome

Tourette Syndrome begins in childhood and is characterized by uncontrollable repetitive actions like neck craning or hopping and noises such as sniffing or chirping. Worst in early adolescence, these tics wax and wane in severity and occur in bouts unpredictably, often drawing unwanted attention from bystanders. Making matters worse, over half of children with Tourette Syndrome also suffer from comorbid, or concurrent, disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). These disorders introduce anxious thoughts, impulsivity, inattention, and mood variability that further disrupt children with Tourette Syndrome from focusing and performing well at school and home. Thus, deficits in the cognitive control functions of response inhibition, response generation, and working memory have long been ascribed to Tourette Syndrome. Yet, without considering the effect of medication, age, and comorbidity, this is a premature attribution. This study used an infrared eye tracking camera and various computer tasks requiring eye movement responses to evaluate response inhibition, response generation, and working memory in Tourette Syndrome. This study, the first to control for medication, age, and comorbidity, enrolled 39 unmedicated children with Tourette Syndrome and 29 typically developing peers aged 10-16 years who completed reflexive and voluntary eye movement tasks and diagnostic rating scales to assess symptom severities of Tourette Syndrome, ADHD, and OCD. Children with Tourette Syndrome and comorbid ADHD and/or OCD, but not children with Tourette Syndrome only, took longer to respond and made more errors and distracted eye movements compared to typically-developing children, displaying cognitive control deficits. However, increasing symptom severities of Tourette Syndrome, ADHD, and OCD correlated with one another. Thus, cognitive control deficits were not specific to Tourette Syndrome patients with comorbid conditions, but rather increase with increasing tic severity, suggesting that a majority of Tourette Syndrome patients, regardless of a clinical diagnosis of ADHD and/or OCD, have symptoms of cognitive control deficits at some level. Therefore, clinicians should evaluate and counsel all families of children with Tourette Syndrome, with or without currently diagnosed ADHD and/or OCD, about the functional ramifications of comorbid symptoms and that they may wax and wane with tic severity.

Psychotische Störungen im DSM-5

This article provides an overview of the main changes in the chapter "Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders" from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5, which, once again, does not make allowance for potential characteristics of children and adolescents. Changes in the main text include abandoning the classical subtypes of Schizophrenia as well as of the special significance of Schneider's first-rank symptoms, resulting in the general requirement of two key features (one having to be a positive symptom) in the definition of Schizophrenia and the allowance for bizarre contents in Delusional Disorders. Further introduced are the diagnosis of a delusional obsessive-compulsive/body dysmorphic disorder exclusively as Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, the specification of affective episodes in Schizoaffective Disorder, and the formulation of a distinct subchapter "Catatonia" for the assessment of catatonic features in the context of several disorders. In Section III (Emerging Measures and Models) there is a recommendation for a dimensional description of psychoses. A likely source of confusion lies in the double introduction of an "Attenuated Psychosis Syndrome." On the one hand, a vague description is provided among "Other Specified Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders" in the main text; on the other hand, there is a precise definition in Section III as a "Condition for Further Study." There is some cause to worry that this vague introduction of the attenuated psychosis syndrome in the main text might indeed open the floodgates to an overdiagnosis of subthreshold psychotic symptoms and their early pharmacological treatment.

Contribution à la validation du modèle cognitif du trouble obsessionnel- compulsif : le rôle des expériences de l’enfance et des états affectifs

Depuis une vingtaine d’années, le modèle cognitif basé sur les interprétations (Groupe de recherche sur la cognition dans le trouble obsessionnel compulsif [OCCWG], 1997, 2001, 2003, 2005) représente le modèle psychologique de l’étiologie et du maintien du TOC le plus étudié au plan empirique. Cependant, peu de recherches ont porté sur les deux postulats importants du modèle touchant respectivement le développement des croyances liées à l’obsessionnalité et la contribution des états affectifs au maintien des interprétations et des croyances (réactivité cognitive). L’objectif de cette thèse est de contribuer à la validation empirique de ces postulats. Fondé sur un devis corrélationnel dans un échantillon de participants mixte (participants troubles obsessionnels-compulsifs et participants non cliniques), le premier article étudie les liens entre les expériences de l’enfance et la présence de croyances obsessionnelles chez l’adulte. Deux modèles alternatifs sont comparés qui représentent d’une part un lien spécifique, et d’autre part un lien non spécifique entre les expériences de l’enfance et les croyances obsessionnelles adultes. Les résultats suggèrent la présence à la fois de relations spécifiques et non spécifiques entre les expériences de l’enfance et les croyances adultes. Les expériences de l’enfance et les domaines de croyance obsessionnels qui montrent des liens spécifiques sont ceux relatifs à la responsabilité, à la perception du danger, et au perfectionnisme. En contrepartie, les expériences de l’enfance relatives à la perception de danger et dans une moindre mesure la sociotropie, apparaissent étroitement liés à la plupart des domaines de croyances adultes (intolérance à l’incertitude, surestimation du danger, importance et contrôle des pensées). Dans la seconde étude, nous nous intéressons à la mesure et l’analyse longitudinales de la réactivité cognitive telle qu’elle s’exprime dans l’environnement naturel de huit participants troubles obsessionnels-compulsifs de type ruminateur. Par le biais de huit protocoles à cas uniques intensifs, l’analyse de contingence entre les scores quotidiens d’humeur (4 états émotionnels cotés par participant) et d’interprétations (une interprétation idiographique des intrusions par participant) permet d’établir une mesure de l’importance de la réactivité cognitive chez chaque participant. Ces résultats sont ensuite analysés du point de vue des postulats principaux de deux modèles spécifiques de la réactivité cognitive (modèle de l’Infusion de l’affect [Forgas, 2008] et modèle de l’Humeur comme intrant [Meeten & Davey, 2011]. Ainsi, les analyses intra-individuelles répétées trans-comportements) et interindividuelles (trans-participants) permettent d’illustrer le rôle proximal déterminant des stratégies de traitement de l’information (traitement systématique; traitement superficiel; traitement altéré) employées par les participants. En résumé, les résultats obtenus dans ces deux études fournissent des données utiles à la poursuite de la validation du modèle des interprétations du TOC. Dans la première étude, l’identification de liens spécifiques entre les EE et les croyances obsessionnelles soutient la séquence étiologique postulée, alors que l’identification de liens non spécifiques suggère que d’autres trajectoires étiologiques peuvent être pertinentes. Dans la seconde étude, l’analyse longitudinale et naturaliste des covariations humeur – interprétations se révèle d’abord féconde à identifier les phénomènes de réactivité cognitive postulés dans le modèle des interprétations. Ensuite, en conformité aux modèles intégrés de la réactivité cognitive, l’analyse des liens entre cette réactivité et les stratégies privilégiées de neutralisation des participants permet d’identifier le rôle clé des différentes stratégies de traitement de l’information dans la réactivité cognitive.

Contribution à la validation du modèle cognitif du trouble obsessionnel- compulsif : le rôle des expériences de l’enfance et des états affectifs

Depuis une vingtaine d’années, le modèle cognitif basé sur les interprétations (Groupe de recherche sur la cognition dans le trouble obsessionnel compulsif [OCCWG], 1997, 2001, 2003, 2005) représente le modèle psychologique de l’étiologie et du maintien du TOC le plus étudié au plan empirique. Cependant, peu de recherches ont porté sur les deux postulats importants du modèle touchant respectivement le développement des croyances liées à l’obsessionnalité et la contribution des états affectifs au maintien des interprétations et des croyances (réactivité cognitive). L’objectif de cette thèse est de contribuer à la validation empirique de ces postulats. Fondé sur un devis corrélationnel dans un échantillon de participants mixte (participants troubles obsessionnels-compulsifs et participants non cliniques), le premier article étudie les liens entre les expériences de l’enfance et la présence de croyances obsessionnelles chez l’adulte. Deux modèles alternatifs sont comparés qui représentent d’une part un lien spécifique, et d’autre part un lien non spécifique entre les expériences de l’enfance et les croyances obsessionnelles adultes. Les résultats suggèrent la présence à la fois de relations spécifiques et non spécifiques entre les expériences de l’enfance et les croyances adultes. Les expériences de l’enfance et les domaines de croyance obsessionnels qui montrent des liens spécifiques sont ceux relatifs à la responsabilité, à la perception du danger, et au perfectionnisme. En contrepartie, les expériences de l’enfance relatives à la perception de danger et dans une moindre mesure la sociotropie, apparaissent étroitement liés à la plupart des domaines de croyances adultes (intolérance à l’incertitude, surestimation du danger, importance et contrôle des pensées). Dans la seconde étude, nous nous intéressons à la mesure et l’analyse longitudinales de la réactivité cognitive telle qu’elle s’exprime dans l’environnement naturel de huit participants troubles obsessionnels-compulsifs de type ruminateur. Par le biais de huit protocoles à cas uniques intensifs, l’analyse de contingence entre les scores quotidiens d’humeur (4 états émotionnels cotés par participant) et d’interprétations (une interprétation idiographique des intrusions par participant) permet d’établir une mesure de l’importance de la réactivité cognitive chez chaque participant. Ces résultats sont ensuite analysés du point de vue des postulats principaux de deux modèles spécifiques de la réactivité cognitive (modèle de l’Infusion de l’affect [Forgas, 2008] et modèle de l’Humeur comme intrant [Meeten & Davey, 2011]. Ainsi, les analyses intra-individuelles répétées trans-comportements) et interindividuelles (trans-participants) permettent d’illustrer le rôle proximal déterminant des stratégies de traitement de l’information (traitement systématique; traitement superficiel; traitement altéré) employées par les participants. En résumé, les résultats obtenus dans ces deux études fournissent des données utiles à la poursuite de la validation du modèle des interprétations du TOC. Dans la première étude, l’identification de liens spécifiques entre les EE et les croyances obsessionnelles soutient la séquence étiologique postulée, alors que l’identification de liens non spécifiques suggère que d’autres trajectoires étiologiques peuvent être pertinentes. Dans la seconde étude, l’analyse longitudinale et naturaliste des covariations humeur – interprétations se révèle d’abord féconde à identifier les phénomènes de réactivité cognitive postulés dans le modèle des interprétations. Ensuite, en conformité aux modèles intégrés de la réactivité cognitive, l’analyse des liens entre cette réactivité et les stratégies privilégiées de neutralisation des participants permet d’identifier le rôle clé des différentes stratégies de traitement de l’information dans la réactivité cognitive.

Névroses et idées fixes ... . Par le Dr. Pierre Janet ... .

Vol. 2 is by F. Raymond and Pierre Janet.

Modelling the population cost-effectiveness of current and evidence-based optimal treatment for anxiety disorders

Background. The present paper describes a component of a large Population cost-effectiveness study that aimed to identify the averted burden and economic efficiency of current and optimal treatment for the major mental disorders. This paper reports on the findings for the anxiety disorders (panic disorder/agoraphobia, social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder). Method. Outcome was calculated as averted 'years lived with disability' (YLD), a population summary measure of disability burden. Costs were the direct health care costs in 1997-8 Australian dollars. The cost per YLD averted (efficiency) was calculated for those already in contact with the health system for a mental health problem (current care) and for a hypothetical optimal care package of evidence-based treatment for this same group. Data sources included the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being and published treatment effects and unit costs. Results. Current coverage was around 40% for most disorders with the exception of social phobia at 21%. Receipt of interventions consistent with evidence-based care ranged from 32% of those in contact with services for social phobia to 64% for post-traumatic stress disorder. The cost of this care was estimated at $400 million, resulting in a cost per YLD averted ranging from $7761 for generalized anxiety disorder to $34 389 for panic/agoraphobia. Under optimal care, costs remained similar but health gains were increased substantially, reducing the cost per YLD to < $20 000 for all disorders. Conclusions. Evidence-based care for anxiety disorders would produce greater population health gain at a similar cost to that of current care, resulting in a substantial increase in the cost-effectiveness of treatment.

Using psilocybin to investigate the relationship between attention, working memory, and the serotonin 1A and 2A receptors

Increasing evidence suggests a link between attention, working memory, serotonin (5-HT), and prefrontal cortex activity. In an attempt to tease out the relationship between these elements, this study tested the effects of the hallucinogenic mixed 5-HT1A/2A receptor agonist psilocybin alone and after pretreatment with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin. Eight healthy human volunteers were rested on a multiple-object tracking task and spatial working memory task under the four conditions: placebo, psilocybin (215 mu g/kg), ketanserin (50 mg), and psilocybin and ketanserin. Psilocybin significantly reduced attentional tracking ability, but had no significant effect on spatial working memory, suggesting a functional dissociation between the two tasks. Pretreatment with ketanserin did not attenuate the effect of psilocybin on attentional performance, suggestinga primary involvement of the 5-HT1A receptor in the observed defecit. Based on physiological and pharmacological data,we speculate that this impaired attentional performance may reflect a reduced ability to suppress or ignore distracting stimuli rather than reduced attentional capacity. The clinical relevance of these results is also discussed.

Imaginary relish and exquisite torture: The elaborated intrusion theory of desire

The authors argue that human desire involves conscious cognition that has strong affective connotation and is potentially involved in the determination of appetitive behavior rather than being epiphenomenal to it. Intrusive thoughts about appetitive targets are triggered automatically by external or physiological cues and by cognitive associates. When intrusions elicit significant pleasure or relief, cognitive elaboration usually ensues. Elaboration competes with concurrent cognitive tasks through retrieval of target-related information and its retention in working memory. Sensory images are especially important products of intrusion and elaboration because they simulate the sensory and emotional qualities of target acquisition. Desire images are momentarily rewarding but amplify awareness of somatic and emotional deficits. Effects of desires on behavior are moderated by competing incentives, target availability, and skills. The theory provides a coherent account of existing data and suggests new directions for research and treatment.

Anxiety and social worries in children with Asperger syndrome

Objective: The current study examined anxiety and social worries in a group of children with Asperger syndrome (AS). Method: Sixty-five children with AS were compared with a clinically anxious sample and a normative sample using parent and child reports. Results: Comparisons between clinically anxious children and children with AS showed similar scores on overall anxiety and on six anxiety subscales using child reports. Parent reports revealed higher ratings of overall anxiety and described children with AS experiencing more obsessive-compulsive symptoms and physical injury fears than clinically anxious children. Conclusions: Children with AS without a diagnosis of anxiety, present with more anxiety symptoms than a normal population and with a different profile than a clinically anxious population. Study limitations are identified and considerations for future research presented.

What checkers actually check:an eye tracking study of inhibitory control and working memory

Background - Not only is compulsive checking the most common symptom in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) with an estimated prevalence of 50–80% in patients, but approximately ~15% of the general population reveal subclinical checking tendencies that impact negatively on their performance in daily activities. Therefore, it is critical to understand how checking affects attention and memory in clinical as well as subclinical checkers. Eye fixations are commonly used as indicators for the distribution of attention but research in OCD has revealed mixed results at best. Methodology/Principal Finding - Here we report atypical eye movement patterns in subclinical checkers during an ecologically valid working memory (WM) manipulation. Our key manipulation was to present an intermediate probe during the delay period of the memory task, explicitly asking for the location of a letter, which, however, had not been part of the encoding set (i.e., misleading participants). Using eye movement measures we now provide evidence that high checkers’ inhibitory impairments for misleading information results in them checking the contents of WM in an atypical manner. Checkers fixate more often and for longer when misleading information is presented than non-checkers. Specifically, checkers spend more time checking stimulus locations as well as locations that had actually been empty during encoding. Conclusions/Significance - We conclude that these atypical eye movement patterns directly reflect internal checking of memory contents and we discuss the implications of our findings for the interpretation of behavioural and neuropsychological data. In addition our results highlight the importance of ecologically valid methodology for revealing the impact of detrimental attention and memory checking on eye movement patterns.