Agri-environmental evaluation of traditional and alternative corn production systems in Chiapas, Mexico

This study evaluates the effects of environmental variables on traditional and alternative agroecosystems in three Ejidos (communal lands) in the Chiapas rainforest in Mexico. The tests occurred within two seasonal agricultural cycles. In spring-summer, experiments were performed with the traditional slash, fell and burn (S-F-B) system, no-burn systems and rotating systems with Mucuna deeringiana Bort., and in the autumn-winter agricultural cycle, three no-burn systems were compared to evaluate the effect of alternative sowing with corn (no-burn and topological modification of sowing). The results show a high floristic diversity in the study area (S_S = 4 - 23%), with no significant differences among the systems evaluated. In the first cycle, the analysis of the agronomical variables of the corn indicated better properties in the fallowing systems, with an average yield of 1950 kg ha^‑1, but there was variation related to the number of years left fallow. In the second cycle, the yields were positive for the alternative technology (average yield 3100 kg ha^‑1). The traditional S-F-B systems had reduced pests and increased organic matter and soil phosphorous content. These results are the consequence of fallow periods and adaptation to the environment; thus, this practice in the Chiapas rainforest constitutes an ethnocultural reality, which is unlikely to change in the near future if the agrosystems are managed based on historical principles.

Chemical composition and in vitro fermentation of tannin-rich tree fruits

Dry and mature tree fruits are a potential source of protein for goats in the semi-arid areas of southern Africa, but their chemical composition and feeding value is largely unknown. This study presents the chemical composition and in vitro fermentation of indehiscent whole fruits and separated seed and hull fractions from Acacia nilotica, Acacia erubescens, Acacia sieberiana, Acacia erioloba, Piliostigma thonningii and Dichrostachys cinerea trees. Results indicate that the N contents of whole fruits ranged between 13.5 g/kg DM (A. nilotica) and 27.1 g/kg DM (A. erubescens). Seeds had a higher N content than hulls for all tree species. A. nilotica, D. cinerea and P thonningii fruits had high levels of extractable phenolics (758, 458 and 299 g/kg DM, respectively). Soluble phenolics (SPh) and ytterbium precipitable phenolics (YbPh) levels were negatively correlated to in vitro gas production but positively correlated to in vitro organic matter degradability (iOMD). Partition factors for whole fruits at 48 h ranged between 3.6 mg/ml for A. erioloba and 7.8 mg/ml for A. nilotica. Seeds of A. erioloba, A. erubescens and P thonningii were consistently fermented more efficiently throughout the incubation period compared to their whole fruits or hulls. Estimating in vitro degradability of phenolic-rich substrates through filtration procedures can give erroneous results due to the loss of soluble phenolics, which are not necessarily degradable. The feeding value of fruits from D. cinerea and A. nilotica tree species may be reduced due to the presence of high levels of phenolics. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro biological activity of tannins from Acacia and other tree fruits: Correlations with colorimetric and gravimetric phenolic assays

This Study was designed to investigate impact of tannins on in vitro ruminal fermentation parameters as well as relationships between concentration and in vitro biological activity of tannins present in tree fruits. Dry and mature fruits of known phenolic content harvested from Acacia nilotica, A. erubescens, A. erioloba, A. sieberiana, Piliostigima thonningii and Dichrostachys cinerea tree species were fermented with rumen fluid in vitro with or without polyethylene glycol (PEG). Correlation between in vitro biological activity and phenolic concentration was determined. Polyethylene glycol inclusion increased Cumulative gas production from all fruit substrates. The largest Increase (225%) after 48 h incubation was observed in D. cinerea fruits while the least (12.7%) increase was observed in A. erubescens fruits. Organic matter degradability (48 h) was increased by PEG inclusion for all tree species except A. erubescens and P. thonningii. For D. cinerea fruits, colorimetric assays were poorly correlated to Increases In gas production due to PEG treatment. Ytterbium precipitable phenolics (YbPh) were also poorly correlated with response to PEG for A. erioloba and P. thonningii fruits. However, YbPh were strongly and positively correlated to the increase In Cumulative gas production due to PEG for A. erubescens and A. nilotica. Folin-Ciocalteau assayed phenolics (SPh) were not correlated to response to PEG in P. thonningii and A. sieberiana. It was Concluded that the PEG effect oil in vitro fermentation was closely related to some measures of phenolic concentration but the relationships varied with tree species.

The effectiveness of adapted rumen fluid versus PEG to ferment tannin-containing substrates in vitro

This study investigated the potential of the goat's ruminal adaptation to reduce the negative effect of tannins on in vitro fermentation. Rumen fluid was obtained from goats fed a mixture of tannin-containing tree fruits (adapted rumen fluid) or tannin-free commercial protein supplements (unadapted rumen fluid) for 85 days. Dry, mature fruits of Acacia nilotica, Acacia erubescens, Acacia erioloba, Dichrostachys cinerea and Piliostigma thonningii were used as substrates for the in vitro fermentation. The effectiveness of adapted rumen fluid to ferment tannin-containing substrates was compared to the extent of fermentation when tannins were inactivated with polyethylene glycol (PEG), a known tannin-binding agent. Adapted rumen fluid (P < 0.05) increased gas production from all five substrates between 15.8% and 73.7%. In A. nilotica, D. cinerea and P thonningii, this increase was less than that obtained through PEG treatment. When PEG was added to adapted rumen fluid a further improvement in extent of fermentation was observed in four out of the five fruit samples. The largest PEG effect when incubated with adapted rumen fluid was observed in A. nilotica (43.1%) and D. cinerea (42.9%) fruits. It is concluded that some tannin-rich feedstuffs may still benefit from treatment even when these are offered to adapted animals. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Chemical composition and in vitro ruminal fermentation of common tree forages in the semi-arid rangelands of Swaziland

Browse plants play an important role in providing feed for livestock in semi-arid rangelands of Africa. Chemical composition and in vitro ruminal fermentation of leaves collected from Acacia burkei, Acacia tortilis, Acacia nilotica, Dichrostachys cinerea and Ehretia obtusifolia in communal grazing lands in the lowveld of Swaziland is presented. Leaves were collected from trees located on two soil types (i.e., lithosol and vertisol) in the communal land but it had no effect on the chemical composition of tree leaves. The NDFom and ADFom content were highest in D. cinerea and A. burkei and lowest in E. obtusifolia and A. nilotica. Crude protein (CP) contents ranged between 108 g/kg and 122 g/kg DM. D. cinerea had the highest Ca and Mg content, while A. tortilis had the lowest. There were marked variations in K level amongst browse species, with A. tortilis (9.1 g/kg DM) having the highest value. The P, Zn and Fe did not differ between browse species. Soil type and tree species interaction impacted in vitro fermentation parameters. Extent of fermentation, as measured by 48 h cumulative gas production, and organic matter degradability was highest in E. obtusifolia leaves and lowest in D. cinerea leaves within soil type. Fermentation efficiency, as measured by partitioning factors, was highest in A. nilotica leaves. Leaves of E. obtusifolia could be a valuable supplementary feedstuff for ruminant livestock due to its in vitro fermentation characteristics as well as low fibre and moderate CP levels. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro gas production and nitrogen degradability of tannin-containing tree fruits in response to incremental levels of polyethylene glycol

This study was designed to determine the response of in vitro fermentation parameters to incremental levels of polyethylene glycol (PEG) when tanniniferous tree fruits (Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia erioloba, A. erubiscens, A. nilotica and Piliostigma thonningii) were fermented using the Reading Pressure Technique. The trivalent ytterbium precipitable phenolics content of fruit substrates ranged from 175 g/kg DM in A. erubiscens to 607 g/kg DM in A. nilotica, while the soluble condensed tannin content ranged from 0.09 AU550nm/40mg in A. erioloba to 0.52 AU550nm/40 mg in D. cinerea. The ADF was highest in P. thonningii fruits (402 g/kg DM) and lowest in A. nilotica fruits (165 g/kg DM). Increasing the level of PEG caused an exponential rise to a maximum (asymptotic) for cumulative gas production, rate of gas production and nitrogen degradability in all substrates except P. thonningii fruits. Dry matter degradability for fruits containing higher levels of soluble condensed tannins (D. cinerea and P. thonningii), showed little response to incremental levels of PEG after incubation for 24 h. The minimum levels of PEG required to maximize in vitro fermentation of tree fruits was found to be 200 mg PEG/g DM of sample for all tree species except A. erubiscens fruits, which required 100 mg PEG/g DM sample. The study provides evidence that PEG levels lower than 1 g/g DM sample can be used for in vitro tannin bioassays to reduce the cost of evaluating non-conventional tanniniferous feedstuffs used in developing countries in the tropics and subtopics. The use of in vitro nitrogen degradability in place of the favoured dry matter degradability improved the accuracy of PEG as a diagnostic tool for tannins in in vitro fermentation systems.

Contrasting effects of necrotrophic and biotrophic plant pathogens on the aphid Aphis fabae

Phytophagous insects have to contend with a wide variation in food quality brought about by a variety of factors intrinsic and extrinsic to the plant. One of the most important factors is infection by plant pathogenic fungi. Necrotrophic and biotrophic plant pathogenic fungi may have contrasting effects on insect herbivores due to their different infection mechanisms and induction of different resistance pathways, although this has been little studied and there has been no study of their combined effect. We studied the effect of the biotrophic rust fungus Uromyces viciae-fabae (Pers.) Schroet (Basidiomycota: Uredinales: Pucciniaceae) and the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea Pers. (Ascomycota: Helotiales: Sclerotiniaceae) singly and together on the performance of the aphid Aphis fabae Scop. (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on Vicia faba (L.) (Fabaceae). Alone, botrytis had an inhibitory effect on individual A. fabae development, survival and fecundity, while rust infection consistently enhanced individual aphids’ performance. These effects varied in linear relation to lesion or pustule density. However, whole-plant infection by either pathogen resulted in a smaller aphid population of smaller aphids than on uninfected plants, indicating a lowering of aphid carrying capacity with infection. When both fungi were applied simultaneously to a leaf they generally cancelled the effect of each other out, resulting in most performance parameters being similar to the controls, although fecundity was reduced. However, sequential plant infection (pathogens applied five days apart) led to a 70% decrease in fecundity and 50% reduction in intrinsic rate of increase. The application of rust before botrytis had a greater inhibitory effect on aphids than applying botrytis before rust. Rust infection increased leaf total nitrogen concentration by 30% while infection by botrytis with or without rust led to a 38% decrease. The aphids’ responses to the two plant pathogens individually is consistent with the alteration in plant nutrient content by infection and also the induction of different plant defence pathways and the possible cross-talk between them. This is the first demonstration of the complex effects of the dual infection of a plant by contrasting pathogens on insect herbivores. Key words: Vicia faba, Botrytis cinerea, Uromyces viciae-fabae, tripartite interactions, induced resistance

Botrytis species: relentless necrotrophic thugs or endophytes gone rogue?

Plant pathology has a long-standing tradition of classifying microbes as pathogens, endophytes or saprophytes. Lifestyles of pathogens are categorized as biotrophic, necrotrophic or hemibiotrophic. Botrytis species are considered by many to be archetypal examples of necrotrophic fungi, with B. cinerea being the most extensively studied species because of its broad host range and economic impact. In this review, we discuss recent work which illustrates that B. cinerea is capable of colonizing plants internally, presumably as an endophyte, without causing any disease or stress symptoms. The extent of the facultative endophytic behaviour of B. cinerea and its relevance in the ecology and disease epidemiology may be vastly underestimated. Moreover, we discuss the recent discovery of a novel Botrytis species, B. deweyae, which normally grows as an endophyte in ornamental daylilies (Hemerocallis), but displays facultative pathogenic behaviour, and is increasingly causing economic damage. We propose that the emergence of endophytes ‘gone rogue’ as novel diseases may be related to increased inbreeding of hybrid lines and reduced genetic diversity. These observations lead us to argue that the sometimes inflexible classification of pathogenic microbes by their lifestyles requires serious reconsideration. There is much more variety to the interactions of Botrytis with its hosts than the eye (or the plant pathologist) can see, and this may be true for other microbes interacting with plants.

Analysis of cryptic, systemic Botrytis infections in symptomless hosts

Botrytis species are generally considered to be aggressive, necrotrophic plant pathogens. By contrast to this general perception, however, Botrytis species could frequently be isolated from the interior of multiple tissues in apparently healthy hosts of many species. Infection frequencies reached 50% of samples or more, but were commonly less, and cryptic infections were rare or absent in some plant species. Prevalence varied substantially from year to year and from tissue to tissue, but some host species routinely had high prevalence. The same genotype was found to occur throughout a host, representing mycelial spread. B. cinerea and B. pseudocinerea are the species that most commonly occur as cryptic infections, but phylogenetically distant isolates of Botrytis were also detected, one of which does not correspond to previously described species. Sporulation and visible damage occurred only when infected tissues were stressed, or became mature or senescent. There was no evidence of cryptic infection having a deleterious effect on growth of the host, and prevalence was probably greater in plants grown in high light conditions. Isolates from cryptic infections were often capable of causing disease (to varying extents) when spore suspensions were inoculated onto their own host as well as on distinct host species, arguing against co-adaptation between cryptic isolates and their hosts. These data collectively suggest that several Botrytis species, including the most notorious pathogenic species, exist frequently in cryptic form to an extent that has thus far largely been neglected, and do not need to cause disease on healthy hosts in order to complete their life-cycles.

Produção de biomassa e composição química de adubos verdes cultivados no Vale do Ribeira

The contribution of green manure to soil improvement and crop production depends primarily on biomass production and its chemical composition, which vary depending on the species, region and growing season. The aim of this research was to evaluate the chemical composition of biomass produced by green manures in Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo, Brazil. In order to develop this research, was carried an experiment in Pariquera-Acu, in 2006/2007, in completely randomized blocks design with four treatments (three green manure and spontaneous vegetation) and five replications. At 30, 60, 90 and 120 after sowing samples were collected in 1m(2) of the shoots and determined fresh and dry, and chemical composition biomass. Sunhemp, pigeon pea and mucuna produced, in decreasing order, the largest quantities of biomass and were more efficient than the spontaneous vegetation. The biomass produced by green manure had higher quality than that produced by spontaneous vegetation. Sunhemp and pigeon pea have a higher proportion of dry matter in stems which have low N, high C/N and L/N ratio, variables indicating slow decomposition of residues. The analysis of dry matter partitioned to better indication of the chemical composition of the residues and the prevision of the availability of nutrients in the soil.

Predação de Diaspididae por larvas de Coccidophilus citricola em diferentes temperaturas

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Decomposição de culturas de cobertura no sistema plantio direto, manejadas mecânica e quimicamente

O sistema plantio direto preconiza o uso de culturas de cobertura para produção de massa seca sobre o solo. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo estudar a produção e a taxa de decomposição de duas coberturas vegetais - crotalária juncea (Crotalária juncea L.) e mucuna-cinza (Stilozobium niveum L) - em três sistemas de manejo (rolo-faca, triturador de palhas e herbicida), e a capacidade de campo efetiva dos manejos. O experimento foi realizado na área do Laboratório de Máquinas e Mecanização Agrícola (LAMMA), do Departamento de Engenharia Rural, UNESP, Jaboticabal - SP, com delineamento em blocos ao acaso, em esquema fatorial 3x2, originando seis tratamentos, com quatro repetições. Foram analisadas as produções de massa seca das culturas de cobertura antes e após o manejo, a velocidade de deslocamento e a capacidade de campo efetiva para cada conjunto (trator-equipamento). As análises dos valores obtidos permitiram verificar que o fator manejo não interfere na decomposição da massa seca das coberturas vegetais e que as duas culturas de cobertura apresentaram massas semelhantes aos 30; 70 e 125 dias após a semeadura, diferindo aos 97 dias, época na qual a crotalária apresentou maior quantidade de massa seca. Aos 30; 51 e 71 dias após o manejo, as massas secas das culturas foram semelhantes. O manejo com herbicida apresentou maior capacidade de campo efetiva.

Consorciação e plantas daninhas afetando a produtividade e a qualidade de sementes de sorgo

This research aimed to study competition effects of legumes intercropping and weeds on seeds yield and quality of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. The experiment was carried out in a Rhodic Nitisol, under field condition in Botucatu region, São Paulo State, Brazil. Ten treatments were tested: sorghum (cv. A-6304) intercropped with Dolichos lablab L., Mucuna aterrima (Piper et Tracy) Holland, Canavalia ensiformis D. C. or Crotalaria juncea L., that were sown in the same time of sorghum or 20 days after the sorghum sowing, and sorghum weed-free and sorghum without weeding. The experimental design employed was the completely randomized blocks with four replications. There were evaluated sorghum seeds yield and some characteristcs of seed quality: purity, hectolitric weight, 1000 seeds weight, insect infestation, germination and vigor (by first counting of germination test and accelerated ageing test). The competition caused by legumes intercropping and weeds affected the yield and the physical and physiological characteristics of sorghum seeds, but the intensity of prejudicial effects depended on the time and the species of legume intercropping.

Biomassa e extração de nutrientes por plantas de cobertura

With the objective of evaluating the biomass production and nutrient removal by plant cover in the Agreste region of Alagoas, an experiment was conducted in the experimental field of the Federal University of Alagoas - Campus Arapiraca. Randomized block design was used, with eight treatments and four replications. The treatments were: Crotalaria juncea, Crotalaria spectabilis, Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill sp., Cajanus cajan, Canavalia ensiformis, Dolichos lablab, Mucuna aterrima and the spontaneous local vegetation (control). The green matter in an area of 1 m(2) during the flowering of each species was evaluated, and biomass was then dried in an oven at 65 degrees C until constant weight for dry matter, in which the contents of macro and micronutrients were extracted. Leguminous plant showed potential for use as green manure in the Agreste region of Alagoas, with N contents higher than the spontaneous vegetation and not being different from one for the accumulation of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Mn and Zn. The spontaneous vegetation was similar to dry matter of legumes production. Among the treatments Cajanus cajan showed higher dry matter production and N accumulation in the aerial part.

Efeito da sucessão com leguminosas sob diferentes níveis de calagem no desenvolvimento e micorrização do trigo

Estudou-se, em areia quartzosa, em Assis (SP), a influência da calagem e de leguminosas para adubação verde sobre o desenvolvimento e micorrização do trigo. Verificou-se o efeito do pousio, do cultivo da soja e dos adubos verdes Crotalaria paulina, Crotalaria juncea e mucuna-preta (Stizolobium aterrimum), e da dosagem de calcário 0, 2 e 4 t/ha sobre os seguintes fatores: massa das raízes e da parte aérea e produtividade de grãos de trigo; teores de fósforo no solo e na folha-bandeira; percentagem de colonização e número de esporos de fungos micorrízicos no solo. A percentagem do sistema radicular do trigo, colonizado por fungos micorrízicos arbusculares aos 21 dias da emergência, e a massa de matéria seca da parte aérea e de grãos foram maiores nos tratamentos com aplicação de calcário e nos cultivados com C. paulina. A colonização do sistema radicular por fungos micorrízicos arbusculares influenciou positivamente o desenvolvimento da parte aérea e a produção de grãos do trigo. O teor de fósforo no solo e a micorrização não correlacionaram com o estado nutricional da planta em relação ao fósforo.